Jammu[b] and Kashmir[c] (abbreviated J&K) is a region administered by India as a union territory[1] and consists of the southern portion of the larger Kashmir region, which has been the subject of a dispute between India and Pakistan since 1947 and between India and China since 1959.[3] The Line of Control separates Jammu and Kashmir from the Pakistani-administered territories of Azad Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan in the west and north. It lies to the north of the Indian states of Himachal Pradesh and Punjab and to the west of Ladakh which is administered by India as a union territory.[2]
Provisions for the formation of the union territory of Jammu and Kashmir were contained within the Jammu and Kashmir Reorganization Act, 2019, which was passed by both houses of the Parliament of India in August 2019. The act re-constituted the former state of Jammu and Kashmir into two union territories, one being Jammu and Kashmir and the other being Ladakh, with effect from 31 October 2019.[19]
Terminology
Jammu and Kashmir is named after the two regions it encompasses – the Jammu region and the Kashmir Valley. As per Government of India, Kashmir region encompasses the region under Indian control and the territory under Pakistan control known as "Pakistan-occupied Kashmir" (POK).[20][21] While Pakistan considers the Indian controlled territory as a part of "Indian-occupied Kashmir" (IOK) or "Indian-held Kashmir" (IHK),[22][23] neutral sources use "Indian-administered Kashmir"/"Pakistan-administered Kashmir" and "Indian-controlled Kashmir"/"Pakistan-controlled Kashmir" to demarcate the areas.[24]
Resolution to repeal Article 370 was passed by both the houses of the Parliament of India in August 2019. At the same time, a reorganization act was also passed, which would reconstitute the state into two union territories, Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh,[29] while Article 35A was also abolished through suspension of the Presidential Order of 1954.[30] The reorganization took effect from 31 October 2019.[19]
In September 2019, nearly 4,000 people, including two former Chief Ministers and hundreds of other politicians, were arrested by the Indian authorities in Kashmir;[31] the state was put under a lockdown and communication and internet services were suspended.[32]
On 11 December 2023, the Supreme Court of India unanimously upheld the abrogation of Articles 370 and 35A, while also directing the union government to restore the statehood of Jammu and Kashmir and hold legislative assembly elections no later than September 2024.[33][34]
Topographic map of Jammu and Kashmir, with visible altitude for the Kashmir valley and Jammu region.
Jammu and Kashmir is home to several valleys such as the Kashmir Valley, Tawi Valley, Chenab Valley, Poonch Valley, Sind Valley, and Lidder Valley.[39] The Kashmir valley is 100km (62mi) wide and 15,520.3km2 (5,992.4sqmi) in area.[40] The Himalayas divide the Kashmir valley from the Tibetan plateau while the Pir Panjal range, which encloses the valley from the west and the south, separates it from the Punjab Plain of the Indo-Gangetic Plain.[41] Along the northeastern flank of the Valley runs the main range of the Himalayas.[42] This valley has an average height of 1,850 metres (6,070ft) above sea-level,[40] but the surrounding Pir Panjal range has an average elevation of 10,000 feet (3,000m).[43] The Jhelum River is the major Himalayan river which flows through the Kashmir valley.[44] The southern Jammu region is mostly mountainous, with the Shivaliks, the middle and the great Himalayas running parallel to each other in a southeast–northwest direction. A narrow southwestern strip constitutes fertile plains. The Chenab, Tawi and Ravi are important rivers flowing through the Jammu region.[45]
The climate of Jammu and Kashmir varies with altitude and across regions. Southern and southwestern areas have a sub tropical climate, with hot summers and cool winters. This region receives most of its rainfall during the monsoon season. In the east and north, summers are usually pleasant. The effect of the monsoon diminishes in areas lying to the leeward side of the Pir Panjal, such as the Kashmir valley, and much of the rainfall happens in the spring season due to western disturbances. Winters are cold, with temperatures reaching sub-zero levels. Snowfall is common in the valley and the mountain areas.
Administrative divisions
Jammu and Kashmir union territory (J and K) is bordered in carmine colour. Ladakh union territory (L) is bordered in blue colour.
Jammu and Kashmir has two major airports at the two capitals of the territory: Jammu Airport at Jammu and Srinagar Airport at Srinagar, which is also the only international airport in the territory. These airports have regular flights to Delhi, Mumbai, Bangalore, Chandigarh and other major cities of the country.
The under-construction Jammu-Baramulla line of the Northern Railways is the only railway line in the territory. Once complete, the line will connect the two regions of Jammu and Kashmir and will also provide a rail link to the Kashmir valley from other parts of the country.
Road
The Jammu–Srinagar National Highway, a segment of the NH44, is the main highway in the territory connecting the two capitals by road. National Highways 1, 144, 144A, 444, 501, 701 and 701A are the other NHs in the territory.
Demographics
As per the 2011 census, Jammu and Kashmir has a total population of 12,267,013. The sex ratio is 889 females per 1000 males. Around 924,485 (7.54%) of the population is scheduled caste and 1,275,106 (10.39%) belong to the scheduled tribes, mainly Gujjar, Bakerwal, and Gaddi. The SCs are mostly concentrated in the Jammu region. The region also has a minority Christian community.
Muslims constitute the majority of the population of Jammu and Kashmir with a large Hindu minority.[67] The Kashmir Division is predominantly Muslim (96.41%) with a small Hindu (2.45%) and Sikh (0.81%) population. Only 808 Kashmiri Hindu Pandit families remain in the valley after their forced displacement by Islamic militants.[68]Shias are mostly concentrated in the Budgam district, where they form about 30-40% of the population.[69][70]
The Jammu Division is predominantly Hindu (67.5%) with a significant Muslim population (30%). The Muslims form a majority in the Rajouri (63%), Poonch (90%), Doda (54%), Kishtwar (58%) and Ramban (71%) districts of Jammu, while the Hindus form a majority in Kathua (88%), Samba (86%), Jammu (84%) and Udhampur (88%) districts. Reasi district has an almost equal number of Hindus and Muslims.[71] The Dogras and various organisations of Hindu-majority Jammu region have demanded a separate state after bifurcation of the territory, on the basis of cultural, linguistic and religious differences from neighbouring Kashmiris (who are predominantly Muslim by faith).[72][73][74]
Kashmiri is the most-spoken language, is mainly spoken in the Kashmir Valley and in the upper reaches of the Chenab Valley, with a sizeable number of speakers in Jammu City. Dogri, related to Punjabi and Pahari, is spoken throughout the plains areas of Jammu division, as well as in parts of the hills. The hill people speak several languages. In the Pir Panjal Range, bordering Pakistan-administered Kashmir, the main language is Pahari-Pothwari, a western variety of Punjabi, as well as Gojri, the language of the Gujjar tribe. In the eastern hills of Jammu division are spoken various Western Pahari languages such as Siraji and Bhaderwahi, which merge with the dialects of western Himachal Pradesh.[75]Urdu is also widely understood and spoken, particularly in the Kashmir region where it acts as the lingua franca alongside Kashmiri and also serves as a medium of instruction along with English, while Hindi is taught and understood in the southern areas of Jammu.[citation needed]
The union territory of Jammu and Kashmir is administered under the provisions of Article 239 of the Constitution of India. Article 239A, originally formulated for the union territory of Puduchery, is also applicable to Jammu and Kashmir.[76]
The President of India appoints a Lieutenant Governor for the union territory.[76] A Council of Ministers led by a Chief Minister is appointed by the Lieutenant Governor from the membership of the legislative assembly. Their role is to advise the Lieutenant Governor in the exercise of functions in matters under the jurisdiction of the legislative assembly. In other matters, the Lieutenant Governor is empowered to act in his own capacity.[76]Omar Abdullah has been chief minister of Jammu and Kashmir since October 2024.[5]
The legislative branch of government is a unicameral legislative assembly, whose tenure is five years. The legislative assembly may make laws for any of the matters in the State List of the Constitution of India except "public order" and "police", which will remain the preserve of the central Government of India. The Lieutenant Governor also has the power to promulgate ordinances which have the same force as the acts of the legislative assembly.[76]
Jammu and Kashmir sends five members (MPs) to the lower house of the Indian parliament (the Lok Sabha) and four members to the upper house (the Rajya Sabha).
Jammu and Kashmir's economy is primarily services-based and agriculture-oriented.[79] The gross domestic product of Jammu and Kashmir was estimated at ₹1.76 lakh crore (equivalent to ₹2.1trillionorUS$25billion in 2023) in 2020–21.[80] In the fiscal year 2023–2024, it is expected that Jammu and Kashmir's Gross Domestic Product (GDP) will exceed Rs 2.30 lakh crore, with a growth rate of 10 per cent.[81] Along with horticulture and agriculture, tourism is an important industry for Jammu and Kashmir, accounting for about 7% to its economy.[82]
The Kashmir Valley is known for its sericulture and cold-water fisheries.[83] Wood from Kashmir is used to make high-quality cricket bats, popularly known as Kashmir Willow.[84] Major agricultural exports from Jammu and Kashmir include apples, pears, cherries, plums, saffron and walnuts.[85] The traditional Kashmiri handicrafts industry employs a large workforce of around 340 thousand artisans and has potential for producing export goods.[79] Small-scale cottage industries include carpet weaving, silks, shawls, basketry, pottery, copper and silverware, papier-mâché and walnut wood.[79] The horticulture sector is the next biggest source of income in the economy. The temperature of Jammu and Kashmir is also suited to floriculture and can support various species of flora.[79]
Boteh from an Antique Kashmiri Dochalla Shawl
Over 500 mineral blocks are present in Jammu and Kashmir, 261 of which are in the Kashmir Division alone.[86]Kishtwar is known as the 'land of sapphire and saffron'.[87] Resources such as timber, herbs and medicinal shrubs, edibles such as mushroom, chilgoza, black zeera, and saffron are available in the forests.[88] The sapphire reserve mines of Machail, Paddar are a source of mineral wealth.[88] Jammu and Kashmir is the only administrative unit in India with a large amount of borax and sapphire resources.[86] It possesses 36 per cent of the graphite, 21 per cent marble and 14 per cent of gypsum present in India.[86] Coal, limestone and magnesite are found scattered among the different districts of the union territory.[86]
Other minerals of significance that occur are bauxite, ball clay and china clay in Udhampur; bentonite in Jammu; diaspore in Rajouri and Udhampur; graphite in Baramulla; lignite and marble in Kupwara; quartz and silica sand in Anantnag, Doda and Udhampur; and quartzite in Anantnag district.[86] In addition, the Department of Geology and Mining has determined the presence of minerals such as magnetite, dolomite, fuel mineral, decorative building stones, slate, and gemstones. All are materials with commercial and industrial uses in many products and factories.[86]
In the fiscal year 2019–20, total exports from Jammu and Kashmir amounted to ₹188.18 million (equivalent to ₹220millionorUS$2.7million in 2023).[79] The Jammu & Kashmir Bank, which is listed as a NIFTY 500 conglomerate, is based in the union territory.[89] Jammu and Kashmir is one of the largest recipients of grants from the central government annually.[90] According to the Sustainable Development Goals Index 2021, 10.35 per cent of the population of Jammu and Kashmir live below the national poverty line, the third-highest among union territories in the country.[91]
Apple cultivation
The apple industry is a significant source of employment in Jammu and Kashmir, generating the highest number of jobs. It provides approximately 400 man-days of work per year per hectare of orchards, supporting a workforce of 3.5 million people. Moreover, it contributes approximately 10 per cent to the Gross State Domestic Product (GSDP). In the year 2020–2021, the apple production in Kashmir was reported to be 1,695,000.00 metric tonnes, while in the Jammu Division, it stood at 24,415.69 metric tonnes. The combined apple production for the entire Union Territory of Jammu and Kashmir amounted to 1,719,415.69 metric tonnes. Notably, the Kashmir Valley is the primary contributor to these numbers, accounting for 75 per cent of India's total apple production and exporting around 1.8 million metric tonnes of apples annually.[92]
The Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (TRAI) regulates all major aspects pertaining to media and telecommunications in Jammu and Kashmir.[93] In addition, the Jammu and Kashmir administration released their media policy in 2020 which enabled government officers to sanction journalists and media organisations for disseminating "fake news", and is valid for the next five years.[94] The policy attracted criticism for allegedly reducing people to "passive recipients of the information the government intends to disseminate."[95] The Press Council of India (PCI) expressed concern over the provisions of fake news in the policy, as it "interferes with the free functioning of the press."[96]
Internet shutdowns are frequent in Jammu and Kashmir. As of February 2021, the region had 300 internet shutdowns since 2012. In 2020 alone, this number was 115, the highest of any year.[103]
Inauguration of the first Khelo India Winter Games
Sports tournaments in Jammu and Kashmir are organised by both the Indian army and police, as well as mainstream political parties and the All Parties Hurriyat Conference.[104] Sportspersons who represent India in tournaments face stigmatisation from separatists.[104]
Institutions such as the Jawahar Institute of Mountaineering and Winter Sports provides mountaineering, skiing and adventure courses.[109] The Royal Springs Golf Course, Srinagar, located on the banks of Dal lake, is considered one of the best golf courses in India.[110] Jammu and Kashmir was also host to the first Khelo India Winter Games, held in 2020 in Gulmarg.[111] Jammu and Kashmir came first with the most gold medals at 26, followed by the Indian Army team with 8 gold medals.[112] The second edition of the winter games were also held in Gulmarg in 2021, with Jammu and Kashmir coming first again.[113]
The Kashmir valley is one of the top tourist destinations in India.[115]Gulmarg, one of the most popular ski resort destinations in India, is also home to the world's highest green golf course.[116] The decrease in violence in the state has boosted the state's economy, specifically tourism.[117] Jammu and Kashmir is also famous for its scenery, flower gardens and apple farms. It attracts tourists for its unique handicrafts and the famous Kashmir shawls.[citation needed]
Notes
↑ Jammu and Kashmir is a disputed territory between India and Pakistan. Jammu and Kashmir has 42,241km2 (16,309sqmi) of area administered by India and 13,297km2 (5,134sqmi) of area controlled by Pakistan under Azad Kashmir which is claimed by India as part of Jammu and Kashmir.
Kashmir is the northernmost geographical region of the Indian subcontinent. Until the mid-19th century, the term "Kashmir" denoted only the Kashmir Valley between the Great Himalayas and the Pir Panjal Range. The term has since come to encompass a larger area that includes the India-administered territories of Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh, the Pakistan-administered territories of Azad Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan, and the Chinese-administered territories of Aksai Chin and the Trans-Karakoram Tract.
Jammu and Kashmir was a region formerly administered by India as a state from 1952 to 2019, constituting the southern and southeastern portion of the larger Kashmir region, which has been the subject of a dispute between India, Pakistan and China since the mid-20th century. The underlying region of this state were parts of the former princely state of Jammu and Kashmir, whose western districts, now known as Azad Kashmir, and northern territories, now known as Gilgit-Baltistan, are administered by Pakistan. The Aksai Chin region in the east, bordering Tibet, has been under Chinese control since 1962.
Srinagar is a city in Indian-administered Jammu and Kashmir in the disputed Kashmir region. It is the largest city and summer capital of Jammu and Kashmir, which is an Indian-administered union territory. It lies in the Kashmir Valley along the banks of the Jhelum River, and the shores of Dal Lake and Anchar Lakes, between the Hari Parbat and Shankaracharya hills. The city is known for its natural environment, various gardens, waterfronts and houseboats. It is also known for traditional Kashmiri handicrafts like the Kashmir shawl, papier-mâché, wood carving, carpet weaving, and jewel making, as well as for dried fruits. It is the second-largest metropolitan area in the Himalayas.
The Srinagar District is an administrative district of Indian-administered Jammu and Kashmir in the disputed Kashmir region. It is one of the 20 districts of Jammu and Kashmir. Situated in the centre of the Kashmir Valley, it is the second-most populous district of the union territory after Jammu District as per the 2011 national census, and is home to the summer capital city of Srinagar. Likewise, the city of Srinagar also serves as the Srinagar District's headquarters.
Anantnag district is an administrative district of Indian-administered Jammu and Kashmir in the disputed Kashmir region. It is one of ten districts which make up the Kashmir Valley. The district headquarters is Anantnag city. As of 2011, it was the third most populous district of Jammu and Kashmir, after Jammu and Srinagar.
Baramulla district or Varmul is one of the 20 districts in the Indian-administered union territory of Jammu and Kashmir (J&K) in the disputed Kashmir region. Baramulla town is the administrative headquarters of this district. The district covered an area of 4,588 km2 (1,771 sq mi) in 2001, but it was reduced to 4,243 km2 (1,638 sq mi) at the time of 2011 census. In 2016, the district administration said that the area was 4,190 km2 (1,620 sq mi). Muslims constitute about 98% of the population.
Doda district is an administrative district of the Jammu division of Indian-administered Jammu and Kashmir in the disputed Kashmir region. Doda covers 2,625 square kilometers.
Leh district is a district in Indian-administered Ladakh in the disputed Kashmir-region. Ladakh is an Indian-administered union territory. With an area of 45,110 km2, it is the second largest district in the country, second only to Kutch. It is bounded on the north by Gilgit-Baltistan's Kharmang and Ghanche districts and Xinjiang's Kashgar Prefecture and Hotan Prefecture, to which it connects via the historic Karakoram Pass. Aksai Chin and Tibet are to the east, Kargil district to the west, and Lahul and Spiti to the south. The district headquarters is in Leh. It lies between 32 and 36 degree north latitude and 75 to 80 degree east longitude.
Jammudistrict is an administrative district of the Jammu division of Indian-administered Jammu and Kashmir in the disputed Kashmir region. It is the most populous district in the Jammu division.
Pulwama is a city and notified area council in the Pulwama district of Indian-administered Jammu and Kashmir in the disputed Kashmir region. It is located approximately 25 kilometres (16 mi) south of the summer capital of the state, Srinagar.
Poonch or Punch is a district of the Jammu division of Indian-administered Jammu and Kashmir in the disputed Kashmir region. With headquarters in the town of Poonch, it is bounded by the Line of Control on three sides. The 1947–48 war between India and Pakistan divided the earlier district into two parts. One went to Pakistan and the other became part of the then-Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir.
Anantnag, also called Islamabad, is the administrative headquarters of Anantnag district of Indian-administered Jammu and Kashmir in the disputed Kashmir region. It is located at a distance of 53 kilometres from the union territory's capital Srinagar. It is the third largest city in Jammu and Kashmir after Srinagar and Jammu with an urban agglomerate population of 159,838 and a municipal limit population of 109,433.
Kupwara district is an administrative district of Indian-administered Jammu and Kashmir in the disputed Kashmir region. It is one of the 10 districts located in the Kashmir Valley Division of Indian administered Kashmir. The Pohru River and Mawar river are two main rivers in the district. Both of them meet Jhelum river in Baramulla district.
Budgam district is an administrative district of Indian-administered Jammu and Kashmir in Kashmir region. Created in 1979 with its headquarters at the town of Budgam, it is the district with the largest population of Shia Muslims in the Kashmir valley.
Ramban district is an administrative district in the Jammu division of Indian-administered Jammu and Kashmir in the disputed Kashmir region. It is located in a valley surrounded the Pir Panjal range. It was carved out as a separate district from erstwhile Doda district in 2007. It is located in the Jammu division. The district headquarters are at Ramban town, which is located midway between Jammu and Srinagar along the Chenab river in the Chenab valley on National Highway-44, approximately 151 km from Jammu and Srinagar.
Shopian district, known as Shupyan in Kashmiri, is an administrative district of Indian-administered Jammu and Kashmir in the disputed Kashmir region. It is a hill district with its administrative headquarters in Shopian town. As it is situated on the historical road commonly known as Mughal Road, most of its area is occupied by forests. Shopian district comes under the Pir Panjal Range which makes it very cold in winter. After partition of India, it was a tehsil of Pulwama district. In March, 2007, the district status was granted by the Government of India. The economy of the district depends on agriculture, particularly apple growing.
Kishtwar district is an administrative district of the Jammu division of Indian-administered Jammu and Kashmir of the disputed Kashmir region. As of 2011, it is the largest and the least populous district of the Union Territory of Jammu and Kashmir.
The Kashmir division is a revenue and administrative division of the Indian-administered Jammu and Kashmir in the disputed Kashmir region. It comprises the Kashmir Valley, bordering the Jammu Division to the south and Ladakh to the east. The Line of Control forms its boundary with the Pakistani-administered territories of Gilgit−Baltistan and Azad Jammu and Kashmir to the north and west and west, respectively.
Jammu is a city in Indian-administered Jammu and Kashmir in the disputed Kashmir region. It is the winter capital of Jammu and Kashmir, which is an Indian-administered union territory. It is the headquarters and the largest city in Jammu district. Lying on the banks of the river Tawi, the city of Jammu, with an area of 240 km2 (93 sq mi), is surrounded by the Himalayas in the north and the northern plains in the south. Jammu is the second-most populous city of the union territory. Jammu is known as "City of Temples" for its ancient temples and Hindu shrines.
References
1 2 Akhtar, Rais; Kirk, William (22 March 2021), "Jammu and Kashmir", Encyclopaedia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., retrieved 2 April 2022, The union territory is part of the larger region of Kashmir, which has been the subject of dispute between India, Pakistan, and China since the partition of the subcontinent in 1947. ... The territory that India administered on its side of the line, which contained both Jammu (the seat of the Dogra dynasty) and the Vale of Kashmir, took on the name Jammu and Kashmir. However, both India and Pakistan have continued to claim the entire Kashmir region
1 2 Briticannica, Eds Encycl. (1 March 2021), "Ladakh", Encyclopaedia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., retrieved 2 April 2022, Ladakh, large area of the northern and eastern Kashmir region, northwestern Indian subcontinent. Administratively, Ladakh is divided between Pakistan (northwest), as part of Gilgit-Baltistan, and India (southeast), as part of Ladakh union territory (until October 31, 2019, part of Jammu and Kashmir state); in addition, China administers portions of northeastern Ladakh.
1 2 The application of the term "administered" to the various regions of Kashmir and a mention of the Kashmir dispute is supported by the tertiary sources (a) through (e), reflecting due weight in the coverage. Although "controlled" and "held" are also applied neutrally to the names of the disputants or to the regions administered by them, as evidenced in sources (h) through (i) below, "held" is also considered politicised usage, as is the term "occupied," (see (j) below). (a) Kashmir, region Indian subcontinent, Encyclopaedia Britannica, retrieved 15 August 2019 (subscription required) Quote: "Kashmir, region of the northwestern Indian subcontinent ... has been the subject of dispute between India and Pakistan since the partition of the Indian subcontinent in 1947. The northern and western portions are administered by Pakistan and comprise three areas: Azad Kashmir, Gilgit, and Baltistan, the last two being part of a territory called the Northern Areas. Administered by India are the southern and southeastern portions, which constitute the state of Jammu and Kashmir but are slated to be split into two union territories."; (b) Pletcher, Kenneth, Aksai Chin, Plateau Region, Asia, Encyclopaedia Britannica, retrieved 16 August 2019 (subscription required) Quote: "Aksai Chin, Chinese (Pinyin) Aksayqin, portion of the Kashmir region, at the northernmost extent of the Indian subcontinent in south-central Asia. It constitutes nearly all the territory of the Chinese-administered sector of Kashmir that is claimed by India to be part of the Ladakh area of Jammu and Kashmir state."; (c) "Kashmir", Encyclopedia Americana, Scholastic Library Publishing, 2006, p.328, ISBN978-0-7172-0139-6 C. E Bosworth, University of Manchester Quote: "KASHMIR, kash'mer, the northernmost region of the Indian subcontinent, administered partlv by India, partly by Pakistan, and partly by China. The region has been the subject of a bitter dispute between India and Pakistan since they became independent in 1947"; (d) Osmańczyk, Edmund Jan (2003), Encyclopedia of the United Nations and International Agreements: G to M, Taylor & Francis, pp.1191–, ISBN978-0-415-93922-5 Quote: "Jammu and Kashmir: Territory in northwestern India, subject to a dispute between India and Pakistan. It has borders with Pakistan and China." (e) Talbot, Ian (2016), A History of Modern South Asia: Politics, States, Diasporas, Yale University Press, pp.28–29, ISBN978-0-300-19694-8 Quote: "We move from a disputed international border to a dotted line on the map that represents a military border not recognized in international law. The line of control separates the Indian and Pakistani administered areas of the former Princely State of Jammu and Kashmir."; (f) Skutsch, Carl (2015) [2007], "China: Border War with India, 1962", in Ciment, James (ed.), Encyclopedia of Conflicts Since World War II (2nded.), London and New York: Routledge, p.573, ISBN978-0-7656-8005-1, The situation between the two nations was complicated by the 1957–1959 uprising by Tibetans against Chinese rule. Refugees poured across the Indian border, and the Indian public was outraged. Any compromise with China on the border issue became impossible. Similarly, China was offended that India had given political asylum to the Dalai Lama when he fled across the border in March 1959. In late 1959, there were shots fired between border patrols operating along both the ill-defined McMahon Line and in the Aksai Chin. (g) Clary, Christopher (2022), The Difficult Politics of Peace: Rivalry in Modern South Asia, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, p.109, ISBN978-0-19-763840-8, Territorial Dispute: The situation along the Sino-Indian frontier continued to worsen. In late July (1959), an Indian reconnaissance patrol was blocked, "apprehended," and eventually expelled after three weeks in custody at the hands of a larger Chinese force near Khurnak Fort in Aksai Chin. ... Circumstances worsened further in October 1959, when a major class at Kongka Pass in eastern Ladakh led to nine dead and ten captured Indian border personnel, making it by far the most serious Sino-Indian class since India's independence. (h) Bose, Sumantra (2009), Kashmir: Roots of Conflict, Paths to Peace, Harvard University Press, pp.294, 291, 293, ISBN978-0-674-02855-5 Quote: "J&K: Jammu and Kashmir. The former princely state that is the subject of the Kashmir dispute. Besides IJK (Indian-controlled Jammu and Kashmir. The larger and more populous part of the former princely state. It has a population of slightly over 10 million, and comprises three regions: Kashmir Valley, Jammu, and Ladakh.) and AJK ('Azad" (Free) Jammu and Kashmir. The more populous part of Pakistani-controlled J&K, with a population of approximately 2.5 million.), it includes the sparsely populated "Northern Areas" of Gilgit and Baltistan, remote mountainous regions which are directly administered, unlike AJK, by the Pakistani central authorities, and some high-altitude uninhabitable tracts under Chinese control." (i) Fisher, Michael H. (2018), An Environmental History of India: From Earliest Times to the Twenty-First Century, Cambridge University Press, p.166, ISBN978-1-107-11162-2 Quote: "Kashmir's identity remains hotly disputed with a UN-supervised "Line of Control" still separating Pakistani-held Azad ("Free") Kashmir from Indian-held Kashmir."; (j) Snedden, Christopher (2015), Understanding Kashmir and Kashmiris, Oxford University Press, p.10, ISBN978-1-84904-621-3 Quote:"Some politicised terms also are used to describe parts of J&K. These terms include the words 'occupied' and 'held'."
↑ Simons, Gary F.; Fennig, Charles D. (2017). Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Twentieth Edition. Dallas: SIL International.
↑ Crane, Robert I. (1956). Area Handbook on Jammu and Kashmir State. University of Chicago for the Human Relations Area Files. p.179. Shina is the most eastern of these languages and in some of its dialects such as the Brokpa of Dah and Hanu and the dialect of Dras, it impinges upon the area of the Sino-Tibetan language family and has been affected by Tibetan with an overlay of words and idioms.
1 2 Jones, Daniel (2003) [1917], Peter Roach; James Hartmann; Jane Setter (eds.), English Pronouncing Dictionary, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN978-3-12-539683-8
↑ District Census Handbook Kishtwar, Part B(PDF). Census of India 2011 (Report). 18 June 2014. pp.9, 10, 22. Retrieved 21 November 2020. Part B page 9 says the rural area is 1,643.65km2 (634.62sqmi), while pages 10 and 22 says 1,643.37km2 (634.51sqmi).
↑ District Census Handbook Kulgam, Part A(PDF). Census of India 2011 (Report). July 2016. p.10. Retrieved 21 November 2020. District Census Handbook Kulgam, Part B(PDF). Census of India 2011 (Report). 16 June 2014. pp.12, 22. Retrieved 21 November 2020. Part B page 12 says the area of the district is 404km2 (156sqmi), but page 22 says 410km2 (160sqmi).
↑ District Census Handbook Shupiyan, Part A(PDF). Census of India 2011 (Report). 16 June 2014. p.10. Retrieved 21 November 2020. District Census Handbook Shupiyan, Part B(PDF). Census of India 2011 (Report). 16 June 2014. pp.12, 22. Retrieved 21 November 2020. Part B pages 12 and 22 say the district area is 312.00km2 (120.46sqmi), but Part A page 10 says 307.42km2 (118.70sqmi).
↑ District Census Handbook Badgam, Part A(PDF). Census of India 2011 (Report). July 2016. pp.10, 46. Retrieved 21 November 2020. District Census Handbook Badgam, Part B(PDF). Census of India 2011 (Report). 16 June 2014. pp.11, 12, 22. Retrieved 21 November 2020. Part A says the district area is 1,371km2 (529sqmi), Part B says 1,371km2 (529sqmi) (page 11) and 1,361km2 (525sqmi) (page 12s and 22).
↑ District Census Handbook Srinagar, Part A(PDF). Census of India 2011 (Report). July 2016. pp.11, 48. Retrieved 21 November 2020. Part A page 48 says the district area was 2,228.0km2 (860.2sqmi) in 2001 and 1,978.95km2 (764.08sqmi) in 2011.
↑ District Census Handbook Ganderbal, Part B(PDF). Census of India 2011 (Report). July 2016. pp.11, 12 and 22. Retrieved 21 November 2020. Part B page 11 says the district area is 393.04km2 (151.75sqmi), but pages 12 and 22 say 259.00km2 (100.00sqmi).
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