The Crown at the top. A katar or ceremonial dagger sat below it. Two soldiers holding the flags. An image of the sun symbolising the SuryavanshaKshatriya lineage from Lord Rama
The Dogra dynasty[1][2] of DograRajputs from the Shivalik hills created Jammu and Kashmir through the treaties with the East India Company following the First Anglo-Sikh war. Events led the Sikh Empire to recognise Jammu as a vassal state in 1820, and later the British added Kashmir to Jammu with the Treaty of Amritsar in 1846. The founder of the dynasty, Gulab Singh, was an influential noble in the court of the Sikh emperor Maharaja Ranjit Singh, while his brother Dhian Singh served as the prime minister of the Sikh Empire. Appointed by Ranjit Singh as the hereditary Raja of the Jammu principality, Gulab Singh established his supremacy over all the hill states surrounding the Kashmir Valley. After the First Anglo-Sikh War in 1846, under the terms of the Treaty of Lahore, 1846, the British East India Company acquired Kashmir from the Sikh Empire and transferred it to Gulab Singh, recognising him as an independent Maharaja. Thus, Jammu and Kashmir was established as one of the largest princely states in India,[lower-alpha 1] receiving a 21-gun salute for its Maharaja in 1921. It was ruled by Gulab Singh and his descendants until 1947.[5][6]
The last ruling Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir was Hari Singh, who contributed troops to the British war effort in World War II and served on Churchill's Imperial War Cabinet.[7] Following the Partition of India in 1947, Hari Singh faced a rebellion in the western districts of the state and a Pakistan-supported tribal invasion, leading him to accede to the Union of India and receive military assistance. Pakistan contested the accession, giving rise to the enduring Kashmir conflict.
With India's support, the popular leader of Jammu and Kashmir, Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah, forced the Maharaja to abdicate in favour of his son, Yuvraj (Crown Prince) Karan Singh, who subsequently accepted the position of a constitutional head of state (Sadr-i-Riyasat) and voluntarily gave up the title of Maharaja.[8]
Etymology
The term Dogra is thought to derive from Durgara, the name of a kingdom mentioned in an eleventh century copper-plate inscription in Chamba. According to Mira Seth, the Durgara region was situated between the outer hills located between the Ravi and Chenab rivers and was derived from a tribal name.[9] In medieval times the term became Dugar, which later turned into Dogra. Kalhana's Rajatarangini makes no mention of a kingdom by this name, but it could have been referred to by its capital (either Vallapura, modern Balor, or Babbapura, modern Babor). In modern times, the term Dogra turned into an ethnic identity, claimed by all those people that speak the Dogri language.[10]
The family of Raja Gulab Singh is referred to as Jamwal (or Jamuwal). According to some accounts, Raja Kapur Dev, who ruled the area of Jammu around 1560 AD had two sons named Jag Dev and Samail Dev. The two sons ruled from the Bahu and Jammu on the opposite banks of the Tawi River and their descendants came to be called Bahuwals and Jamuwals respectively.[11] The members of the family however claim descent from a legendary Suryavanshi (solar) dynasty ruler Jambu Lochan, who is believed to have founded the city of Jammu in antiquity.[12][13]
Origin
Prior to the arrival of the Dogras in the region, the local inhabitants of the Durgara region (also known as Durgara Pradesh[9]) were likely Khasas and Kanets, who originally inhabited the Western Himalayan-range.[9] Migrations of Dogri-speaking peoples later followed.[9] The Dogras claim descent from migrants who originated from the present-day regions of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and Bengal prior to the Islamic invasions of the Indian subcontinent.[9] Most of the ruling families of the Pahari Hill States traditionally trace their ancestry back to Ayodhya, claiming descent from Sumitra, who was the last descendant of the Suryavanshi lineage of Rama.[14] An ancestor named Jambu Lochan is said to have first moved to the Jammu region, where he established the settlement of Jammu.[14] According to local mythology, Jambu decided to construct a settelement at Jammu after he witnessed a wild goat and lion drinking from the same water-hole in a forest that was located at the site, being impressed by how two species of predator and prey could peacefully co-exist.[15] From there onwards, branches of the family spread-out to conquer the surrounding mountainous areas of the region, establishing their own dynasties.[14]
Jammu State
History of the Jamwal rulers
In around the year 850, the Dogras came to power in Jammu, being establshed by Raja Bhuj or Bhuj Dev.[14] The centres of power for the Dogra rulers at this era were Bahu, Babbapura (Babor), and Jammu.[14] The first historical mention to a Pahari ruler relates to two copper-plate inscription dated to the years 1056 and 1066 that eulogize the feats of Raja Sahilavarman of Chamba State (r. 920–940).[14]
The earliest type of administration in the region consisted of reigns by feudal cheiftains, referred to as a thakur or rana.[9] This form of government gradually shifted to one that was hereditary based on primogeniture, leading to the formation of dynasties.[9] These states often warred with one another, absorbing or being absorbed by other states, with the winner usually being the stronger state and the loser the smaller one.[9] By the tenth century, the following prominent Dogra states arose in the Pahari Hills region of the Western Himalayas:[9]
Mahmud of Ghazni's army passed through the Punjab and invaded Poonch State, however he did not attack Jammu State and the polity was spared from fighting.[9] There is a mention in Kalhana's Rajatarangini of three Dogra rulers, namely Kirti and Vajradhara of Babbapura and Umadhara.[14] All three of these rulers are also mentioned in the Vansavali (genealogy) of the Jammu ruling house, albeit with minor variations.[14] The Jammu rulers were close with the Kashmiri rulers, such as during the reign of Kalasa and Bhikshachara.[9] The Dogra-ruler Vajradhara is said to have allied with Trigarta (Kangra), Vallapura (Balaor), Vartula (Batal), and Thakkuras of the Chandrabhaga Valley, to pledge alliegance to Bhikshachara of Kashmir.[14] Bhikshachara asceded to the throne of Kashmir in 1120.[14]
In the autobiography of Timur from 1399, known as the Malfuzat-i-Timuri, there is a reference to a ruler of Jammu ("Raja-Jammu") but no mention of their specific name is given but it would have been Raja Mal Dev of Jammu who resisted the Timurids.[note 1][14][9] This is the first mention of the region of Jammu in recorded-history.[14] According to the Timurid account, Jammu was invaded and Raja Bhim was converted to Islam.[9] The Timurid account mentions that large amounts of booty that consisted of grain and property were taken from Jammu by them.[9] However, these early contracts with Islamic polities did not leave any lasting impression on Jammu until the rule of the Mughals.[9] Raja Mal Dev was the fourth ruler of the Dev dynasty and he ruled Jammu from 1361 to 1400, establishing his headquarters at Purani Mnadi.[15] After Raja Mal Dev, between the years 1400 to 1733, ten descendants of Raja Mal Dev ruled Jammu.[15] For some centuries, the Jammu-Babbapura rulers would reign nearly independently and supported the Sultans of Delhi.[14] Raja Hamir or Bhim Dev was recorded as being a supporter of Mubarak Shah (r. 1421–1434) of the Sayyid dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate against the Khokhars of the Darvabhisara Hills.[14]
With the oncoming of the Mughal empire, the Jammuite rulers resisted their attempts overwhelm them but finally succumbed once they could reach favourable terms.[14] The Mughals were aggressive toward the small states of the Western Himalayas, with Akbar declaring himself as their soverign ruler.[9] Twenty-two of the hill states recognized the soverignty of Akbar and each dispatched a local prince to the Mughal court.[9] The princes would effectively be hostages to ensure that the small hill states would act courteous to the Mughal authority.[9] However, the hill states often resisted the Mughals and rose up in rebellion against them, such is the case with Jammu State, which rose in insurrection against the Mughals on three separate instances during this time: the first between the years 1588–9, the second between 1594–5, and the third from 1616–17.[9]
During the reign of Akbar between the years 1594–95, the Jammu ruler Raja Parasram Dev teamed-up with fellow Pahari rulers Rai Pratap of Jasrota and Rai Balbhadra of Lakhanpur in a rebellion against the Mughals, which raged from Kangra to the Jammu Hills.[14] As per the Ain-i-Akbari, Raja Sangram Dev of Jammu was against Raja Man, viceroy of Lahore, with him slaying Raja Man in 1616–17 during the reign of emperor Jahangir.[14] During the reigns of the Mughal emperors Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb, Dogra relations with the Mughals had pacified, with the vansavali recording that Rajas Bhup Dev (r. 1624–1650) and Raja Hari Dev (r. 1650–1686) were employed as mansabdars by the Mughals.[14] However, not all of the hill chiefs were amicable to the Mughals still, as the rulers of Basohli State, resisted them further between 1635–73, whilst the Mughal forces were commanded by Zain Khan Koka.[9] Raja Hari Dev died in 1686 during the Deccani campaigns of Aurangzeb.[14]
The successor of Hari Dev, who was Raja Gajai Dev (r. 1686–1707), moved toward re-establishing the independence of Jammu from the Mughals.[14] His successor, Dhruv Dev, worked toward the same ambition.[14]
Dhruv Dev
Painting of Raja Anand Dev of Bahu State seated with Raja Dhruv Dev of Jammu State, by Patak Chand, ca.1770
Jammu was a small principality until the decline of Mughal authority in the early 18th century, where-after it arose to became a regional powerhouse during the reign of Raja Dhruv Dev.[16][9] Jammu was ruled by the Dev Dynasty, which descends from Raja Mal Dev.[15]Raja Dhruv Dev laid down the foundations of the Jamwal rulers of Jammu in 1703.[citation needed] During the reign of Dhruv Dev, Jammu was unified and it established authority and dominance over the other surrounding Hill States.[16][9] The other hill states of Jasrota, Basohli, Mankot, and Bandralta were brought under Jammu's writ under Raja Dhruv Dev.[9]
Raja Ranjit Dev had four sons: Ranjit Dev, Ghansar Dev, Surat Dev, and Balwant Dev.[note 2][16] Ranjit Dev was the successor to the Jammu throne whilst Balwant Dev was given control over the jagir of Sarunisar.[16] Balwant Dev was the patron of Pahari artists, such as Nainsukh.[16] Surat Dev, the third son of Dhruv Dev, was married to two women, one from the Slahria clan of Bara Pind, and the other from the Chibs of Batala.[16] Surat Dev would go-on to produce four sons with these two wives: Zorawar Singh, Mian Mota, Bhulla, and Dulla.[16] Zorawar Singh was granted the jagir of Deval.[16] Zorawar Singh would later marry a Jit Rajput women of Charhai whilst Mian Mota married into the family of Raja Jai Singh Jaswal.[16] Zorawar Singh's son was named Kishore Singh, with Kishore later marrying a Bhadwal woman from Marhta in Basohli tehsil.[16] Kishore's son was Gulab Singh.[16]
Ghansar Dev
Ghansar Dev, also known as Ghansar Chand, was the second son of Dhruv Dev and was born in ca.1715 (or perhaps earlier).[17] He occupied the regency of Jammu State from 1735–1747, as Ranjit Dev had been arrested and imprisoned at Lahore between the years 1735–1747 due to the Mughals suspecting him of being disloyal to their governor of the hill region, therefore Ghansar served as regent in his elder brother's absence.[17] Traditionally, the region of Jammu was divided into two states that were based on either side of the Tawi river: Bahu State and Jammu State.[17] During the reign of Ghansar, Bahu State ceased to be an independent entity for unclear reasons and was absorbed into Jammu State.[17]
Ranjit Dev
Painting of Raja Amrit Pal of Basohli State with Raja Ranjit Dev of Jammu State and two of his sons, Jammu, ca.1765. Brij Raj Dev, the future successor, is wearing red and holding a hawk, and Dalel Singh is on the far-left wearing an indigo Kashmiri shawl with poppy border.
Dhruv Dev's successor Raja Ranjit Dev (1735–1781[17][9]) introduced social reforms such as a ban on sati (immolation of the wife on the pyre of the husband) and female infanticide.[citation needed] Between the years 1735–1747, Ranjit Dev was imprisoned by the Mughals at Lahore as they believed he was disloyal to the Mughal regime.[9] After Nadir Shah invaded the Mughal Empire in 1739, it allowed Raja Ranjit Dev to further develop the independence of Jammu.[9] During the reign of Raja Ranjit Dev, Jammu dominated twenty-two surrounding Hill States, with them becoming tributaries of Jammu, such as formerly powerful states such as Basohli, Bhadarwah, Kishtwar, and Chinaini states.[16][9] This reality led to the coining of a local phrase: bāyaṅ vīch Jammu sirdār hai (meaning "Jammu is the chief of the twenty-two hill states").[9] Ranjit Dev had five ranis (queens), with polygamy being the norm for wealthy Dogra families.[9]
Painting of a begum out hawking with her maids, possibly a depiction of Begum Malka Zamani, attributed to Nainsukh, Jammu, ca.1735–40
Ranjit Dev, like his brother Balwant Dev, was a patron of the arts.[14][9] During Ranjit's reign, Jammu's local economy benefited, as trading developed, which was noted by the English traveller George Forster in 1783.[9] Forster also noted that the Jammuite rulers were tolerant on the matter of religion.[9] Many refugees from other areas of India settled in Jammu during this period, such as Malka Zamani, Mughlani Begum (widow of Mir Mannu), Hari Singh (s/o Kaura Mal, the diwan of Mir Mannu), and Dalpat Rai (s/o Lakhpat Rai)[9]
The downfall of the Mughals led the Sikh Misls to arise in the Punjab in the subsequent power-vacuum that followed, with this change having repercussions on the Hill States.[16][9] Towards the end of Ranjit Dev's rule, the Sikh clans of Punjab (misls) gained ascendency, and Jammu began to be contested by the Bhangi, Kanhaiya and Sukerchakiamisls. Around 1770, the Bhangi misl attacked Jammu and forced Ranjit Dev to become a tributary.[18][19] Other sources state that Ranjit Dev was able to successfully fend-off the Sikh attacks on Jammu that occurred later-on in his reign and that it was his successors that succumbed to the Sikhs.[9]
Braj Dev
Painting of Raja Brij Raj Dev of Jammu State smoking hookah
Raja Ranjit Dev was succeeded by Raja Braj Dev who killed his brother and nephew to become king.[citation needed] Brij Lal Dev, Ranjit Dev's successor, was defeated by the Sikh Sukerchakia chief Mahan Singh, who sacked Jammu and plundered it. Mahan Singh is said to have taken loot worth two crore rupees from Jammu.[9] Thus Jammu lost its supremacy over the surrounding country. In the Battle of Rumal, the Jammu ruler was killed by Sikhs.[18][19]Raja Braj Dev was killed during the Sikh invasion of Jammu in 1787.[20]
Sampuran Dev
Painting of a Jammu State royal smoking hookah and watching dancing girls, ca.1790
After the death of Raja Braj Dev, the state of Jammu was heavily under the sway of the Punjabi court.[16] His infant son Raja Sampuran Dev (1787–1797) succeeded with Jammu becoming an autonomous tributary under the Sikh Confederacy Misls.[note 3][21] The young Sampuran Singh was declared as the feudal lord but would be under the watch of his uncle Mian Mota.[16] Sampuran Singh died at the age of eleven with no issue.[16] Thus, he was succeeded by Raja Jit Singh, who was the son of Dalel Singh.[16][note 4]
Jit Dev
During the reign of Jit Singh, Mian Mota was granted the jagir of Purmandal.[16] Jit Singh was involved in another conflict with the Sikh empire, which he lost and was exiled into British territory.[citation needed] With Jammu fully annexed by the Sikhs around 1808, Ranjit Singh first allotted it to his son Kharak Singh.[citation needed] Other sources give the year 1812 as when Jammu was annexed by the Sikhs.[9]
Jammu State was annexed by the Sikh Empire in 1808 or 1812, the smaller states of Basohli and others soon followed and fell to the Sikhs.[9] Kharak Singh's agents were unable to maintain law and order, with locals led by Mian Dedo rebelling against the Sikh jagirdar (governor).[23][24] In 1812, the Dogra commander Gulab Singh led the Sikh forces against Kashmir and assisted their attacks on Multan in 1819 and against the PashtunYousafzai.[9]
Hereditary fiefdom
In 1820, Ranjit Singh then bestowed the territory as a hereditary fiefdom to Gulab Singh's father Kishore Singh, a distant kinsman of Raja Jit Singh.[25][9] Ranjit Singh bestowed the place as a jagir on Kishore Singh, who belonged to the Jamwal Rajput clan that ruled Jammu. Kishore Singh was introduced to Ranjit Singh by his son Gulab Singh, who had joined Ranjit Singh's army in 1809.[9] Upon this introduction, Ranjit Singh employed Kishore Singh and two brothers of Gulab Singh, Suchet Singh and Dhian Singh.[9] During Sikh-rule, the three Dogra brothers Suchet Singh, Gulab Singh, and Dhian Singh played prominent roles in the Sikh court, with all of them being descended from Surat Dev.[9]
On his father's death in 1821 or 1822, Jammu passed to Gulab Singh.[26][9] Gulab Singh was the son of Kishore Singh, grandson of Zorawar Singh, great-grandson of Surat Dev, and great-great-grandson of Raja Dhruv Dev of Jammu.[16] Dhian Singh eventually worked his way up and reached the position of prime minister of the Sikh Empire in 1828.[9] Dhian Singh was given control over Poonch State and was bestowed the jagirs of Jasrota, Basholi, and Bhadu.[9] Suchet Singh was given Ramnagar as a raja.[9] At various points, Gulab Singh was bestowed with the jagirs of Bhera, Miani, Qadirabad, Dangi, Pind Dadda Khan, Jhelum, and Gujarat.[9]
'A battle scene' (second), from a painted scroll documenting the invasions of Ladakh, Baltistan, and Western Tibet, ca.1840's
As a jagirdar (governor) for the Sikhs, Gulab Singh extended the boundaries of the Sikh Empire to western Tibet with the help of his fine General Zorawar Singh.[9] Gulab Singh conquered the states of Kashtwar, Mankotia, Chenehni, Bandralta, and Padar (a minor province of Chamba State).[9] The Sikh rule was then extended beyond the Jammu Region and the Kashmir Valley to include the Tibetan Buddhist kingdom of Ladakh (conquered in 1834[9]) and the Emirates of Hunza, Gilgit and Nagar.
Miniature painting of Udham Singh, son of Gulab Singh, leaning against a bolster with an attendant
Gulab Singh had been a loyal and faithful subject of Ranjit Singh during the ruler's life, however after the death of Ranjit in 1839, conspiracies, rivalries, and intrigues arose in the Sikh court, with varying factions vying against one another for their own benefit.[9] In the turmoil for succession of the Sikh empire that followed Maharaja Ranjit Singh's death in 1839, two of Gulab Singh's sons Udham Singh, and Sohan Singh were killed in the feuding between the Sikh heirs. His youngest brother Suchet Singh, was killed by his own nephew Hira Singh, the Vizir (prime minister) of the Sikh empire. Hira Singh, was a great favourite of Maharaja Ranjit Singh[27] and Gulab Singh once even aspired to have him installed as the Sikh emperor.[28] Hira Singh had become prime minister aged 24, after his father and Gulab Singh's brother Vizir Dhian Singh was assassinated in his blotched September 1843 coup d'état against Sikh emperor Sher Singh in Lahore. During the regency of Maharani Jind Kaur, Hira Singh was killed by the Sikh army in December 1844. Another son of Gulab Singh, named Randhir Singh, was killed during this time.[9] During this period of turmoil, the Sikh Khalsa Army invaded Jammu and brought Gulab Singh back to Lahore as a prisoner, partly because Gulab Singh had taken precious treasures and resources from the Punjab when he shifted to Jammu after he defended Chand Kaur from Sher Singh.[9] Gulab Singh managed to survive this time and returned to Jammu.[9]
Gulab Singh, came into possession of the Koh-i-noor diamond, after Maharaja Kharak Singh's mysterious death in prison in 1840, and had previously presented the famous stone to Maharaja Sher Singh to win his favour.[28]
After the First Anglo-Sikh War in 1846, Sir Henry Lawrence was appointed British Resident and VizirLal Singh on behalf of infant emperor Duleep Singh was asked to surrender Kashmir.[29]VizirLal Singh was also a Dogra, and along with Gulab Singh colluded with the British to deliberately break the Sikh army and facilitate the British victory.[30][31]
Under the terms of the Treaty of Amritsar that followed in March 1846, the British government sold Kashmir for a sum of 7.5 million Nanakshahee rupees to Gulab Singh, hereafter bestowed with the title of Maharaja. Thus the Princely State of Jammu and Kashmir came into being under Gulab Singh, as per the treaty of Lahore, signed between the British and the Sikhs. Gulab Singh had to pay a large indemnity to the British on behalf of the Sikhs.[9]
Jammu and Kashmir State
Maharaja Partab Singh (enthroned in 1885) saw the construction of Banihal Cart Road (B.C. Road) mainly to facilitate telegraph services. During WWI he provided one Mountain Battery and three Infantry Battalions to fight for the British in East Africa, Palestine and Mesopotamia.[32] For the services of his troops the state was awarded a hereditary 21-guns salute.
One of the main residences of the maharajas was the Sher Garhi Palace in their summer capital Srinagar.
Maharaja Hari Singh
The last ruler of Jammu and Kashmir was Maharaja Hari Singh, who ascended the throne in 1925. He made primary education compulsory in the State, introduced laws prohibiting child marriage and allowed low castes to go to places of worship.[citation needed] Hari Singh was as a member of Churchill's British War Cabinet in WWII, and supplied troops for the Allies.[7]
Singh's reign saw the accession of Jammu and Kashmir to the newly independent Indian Union in 1947. He originally manoeuvered to maintain his independence by playing India and Pakistan off against each other. There was an armed movement against the Maharaja's rule, especially in the Poonch district of Jammu, where his troops were unable to control the fighters and retreated to Jammu. In October 1947, Singh appealed to India for help and acceded Jammu to India, although there is considerable controversy over exactly at what point,[33] and whether or not his accession included the sovereignty of the state.[34][35]
In June 1952, Singh's rule was terminated by the state government of Indian-administered Kashmir.[36][37] His son Yuvraj (Crown Prince) Karan Singh too abdicated and was elected Sadr-e-Riyasat ('President of the Province') and Governor of the state in 1964.
Since 1952
Yuvraj (Crown Prince) Karan Singh after serving as the President of Jammu and Kashmir from 1952 to 1964 went on to become the youngest cabinet minister as a leading member of the Indian Congress Party in 1967. He was also the Indian ambassador to the US in 1989. His elder son Vikramaditya Singh was a member of the Peoples Democratic Party. Currently in Congress party,[38] Karan Singh's younger son Ajatshatru Singh was a member of the National Conference (NC) headed by Omar Abdullah, grandson of Sheikh Abdullah who had abolished the monarchy in 1952. Ajatshatru Singh had served with the NC as a minister in the Jammu and Kashmir Government from 1996 to 2002. In 2014 he quit the NC to join the BJP, stating that he had done so to satisfy the "people’s desire to have a corruption and dynasty-free government".[39]
IV. Hari Singh, Maharaja of Jammu and KashmirGCSI, GCIE, GCVO (1895–1961; r. 1925–1947; titular Maharaja: 1952–1961)
V. Karan Singh, President of Jammu and Kashmir (b. 1931; Regent of Jammu and Kashmir: 1949–1952; Sadar-e-Riyasat (President) of Jammu and Kashmir: 1952–1965; Governor of Jammu and Kashmir: 1965–1967;
No Dogra artwork from before the Mughal-era has been found or come down to us.[9] At the height of the reign of the Dogras, artists were patronized and temples and fortresses were decorated with mural paintings, such as the temples of Krimchi, Babbor, and in the fort at Bahu.[9] Artwork flourished under the Dogras due to two main reasons: contact with the Mughals and the ascendance of the Jammu State.[9] Exchanges between the Dogras and the Mughals led to the transmission of Mughal manners, methods, and tastes regarding artwork, to the Dogras.[9] The first Pahari ruler to directly interact with the Mughals was Raja Bhupat Pal of Basohli State (r. 1598–1635), who was imprisoned by Jahangir from 1613–1627, during which he likely witnessed Mughal artwork.[9] This led to the art of painting to arise first in Basohli State, with the successors Raja Sangram Pal (r. 1635–73) and Raja Kirpan Pal (r. 1678–93) further developing Basohli as a centre of painting.[9] The tradition of painting later developed in the hill states of Jasrota, Mankot, Lakhanpur, Samba, Bhoti, Bandralta, Bhadrawaha, Poonch, and Rajauri.[9]
Portrait of the three artists Arjun, Ruldu, and Kanchu, whom were employed by the court of Ranbir Singh of Jammu and Kashmir State
As for Jammu State, the first paintings seem to date to the reign of Raja Hari Dev (r. 1660–90).[9] As Jammu became a powerful and hegemonic entity within the region above the rest, this brought upon peace, prosperity, and stability, which attracted painters to the Jammuite court, leading to the developing of Jammu State as a painting centre in the hills region.[9] Raja Dhruv Dev's four sons were all patrons of painting, especially Raja Balwant Singh of Jasrota State.[9] When Mughal officials sought refuge in Jammu State, they possibly brought Mughal miniature paintings with them and had an impact on the local fashion of Jammu, which is revealed in the miniature paintings produced after their arrival.[9] The extant wall-paintings of the territories of J&K State all date back to the reign of Gulab Singh, however there are miniature paintings that pre-date this time.[9] The brothers of Gulab Singh, Dhian Singh and Suchet Singh, were patrons of wall-paintings.[9] Gubab Singh's son and successor, Ranbir Singh, kept an atelier of artists.[9] The Dogra nobles were rich in wealth, this allowed them to pay for the patronization of artists.[9] Petty Rajputs and aristorcrats also emulated the royal-class by patronizing artists.[9] The patrons of temple construction, usually the mercantile-classes belonging to the Vaishyavarna that were engaged in trade and industry, had the temple walls decorated with murals.[9]
Many of the extant Dogra wall paintings cover religious themes as this was the primary reason for executing them, to pay respect to the divinity of the deity, area, or temple.[9]Vaishnavism, Shaivism, and Shaktism (especially veneration of Vaishno Devi) were prominent streams of Hinduism amongst the Dogras and local people.[9] The worship of Vishnu and his avatars can be evinced in the early portraits of the Jammuite rulers Raja Ananta Dev and Raja Dhruv Dev, who bear Vaishnavist-orientated tilaks in their painted portraits.[9] During the Sikh-period in Jammu, the Jammuite nobles venerated the Sikh gurus and respected the Guru Granth Sahib, with them patronizing the painting of Sikh themes, such as paintings depicting Guru Nanak.[9]
However, there are secular paintings related to hunting, which was a popular past-time that involved many members of the noble-class, officials, and even the commoners.[9] Other secular themes relate to music and dance, which is evident from murals found at Ramnagar Palace.[9] Since miniature paintings often were part of dowries, artists would often travel with princesses to various royal courts of the surrounding region.[9] Commoner women acted as models for artists as noble women did not appear before artists for this purpose.[9] There are few to nil cases of other castes patronizing wall paintings, however a temple at Purmandal was constructed under the purview of a Brahmin and was decorated with murals but this Brahmin was engaged in a trading profession in Gujarat rather than traditional Brahmin customs.[9]
Some prominent artisan families that were employed by the Dogra rulers are the Seu-Nainsukh family.[9] The Seu-Nainsukh family was the dominant artisan family in the hill states of the Western Himalayas during the 18th and 19th centuries, including in Jammu.[9] Seu's son, Nainsukh, was directly employed by Balwant Singh of Jasrota, whom was the youngest son of Raja Dhruv Dev of Jammu State.[9] Nainsukh later moved to Basohli to work under that state's patronage.[9] Nainsukh and his son Ranjha (also an artist) worked under Raja Amrit Pal of Basohli State in the mid-18th century.[9] Ranjha's sons, Gur Sahai and Sukh Dayal, went to Jammu State to work as artists.[9] Three artists named Arjun, Ruldu, and Kanchu worked under the patronage of Ranbir Singh's court.[9] A prominent artist of late 19th century Jammu was Jagat Ram Dube, who was nicknamed as Chuniya and was of a Brahmin background.[9] Another artist was Haricharan, possibly a member of the family of the artist Sajnu who worked under Mandi State patronage.[9] As per lore, a Tarkhan artist named Hiru mistri of Suneeta village was the one who carried out the painting work of the walls of Ramnagar Palace.[9] Three artisan families based out of the Kangra region had sent their sons to work under Jammuite patronage but there is no evidence that they carried-out mural work.[9]
The Dogra wall paintings of that era were likely painted by more than one person, with the artisan families possibly travelling from place-to-place in a nomadic fashion, such as by working in one house and then moving to another to work when the work is completed.[9] The walls of the Ram-Ji-Ka-Mandir were painted by artists who hailed from Jaipur.[9] The local Radhakrishna temple of Mule Chak, Jammu region were painted by Muslims, with a Muslim painter named Aziz known to have worked in the vicinity.[9] Traditional architects tended to have knowledge of executing wall paintings.[9] Artists were paid in the form of grain for their services but ones attached to the royal-courts were paid in-cash.[9] Examples of land deeds bestowed upon any particular artists have not been found in this region.[9] When the Jammuite rulers would leave for religious pilgramages, such as the tirth-yatra, such as to Prayag, Haridwar, or Gaya, their artists would accompany them, as evidenced by the genealogical registers present at popular religious destinations, such as the bahis of the pandas in Haridwar.[9]
↑ Jammu and Kashmir was the largest among the princely states by land area and third largest by the amount of annual revenue.[3][4]
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The Dogras, or Dogra people, are an Indo-Aryan ethno-linguistic group living primarily in the Indian union territory of Jammu and Kashmir and neighbouring Pakistan, consisting of the Dogri language speakers. They live predominantly in the Jammu region of Jammu and Kashmir, and in adjoining areas of Punjab and Himachal Pradesh. Some also live in northeastern Pakistan. Their historical homeland is known as Duggar.
Pahari painting is an umbrella term used for a form of Indian painting, done mostly in miniature forms, originating from the lower Himalayan hill kingdoms of North India and plains of Punjab, during the early 17th to mid 19th century, notably Basohli, Mankot, Nurpur, Chamba, Kangra, Guler, Mandi and Garhwal. Nainsukh was a famous master of the mid-18th century, followed by his family workshop for another two generations. The central theme of Pahari painting is depiction of eternal love of the Hindu deities Radha and Krishna. A distinct lyricism, spontaneous rhythm, softness, minute intricate details of composition, and intense perception and portrayal of human emotions and physical features distinguish the Pahari miniatures from the other miniature schools like Deccan, Mughal and Rajasthani-Rajput.
The Sikh Empire was a regional power based in the Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent. It existed from 1799, when Maharaja Ranjit Singh captured Lahore, to 1849, when it was defeated and conquered by the British East India Company in the Second Anglo-Sikh War. It was forged on the foundations of the Khalsa from a collection of autonomous misls. At its peak in the 19th century, the empire extended from Gilgit and Tibet in the north to the deserts of Sindh in the south and from the Khyber Pass in the west to the Sutlej in the east as far as Oudh. It was divided into four provinces: Lahore, which became the Sikh capital; Multan; Peshawar; and Kashmir from 1799 to 1849. Religiously diverse, with an estimated population of 4.5 million in 1831, it was the last major region of the Indian subcontinent to be annexed by the British Empire.
The Hill States of India were princely states lying in the northern border regions of the British Indian Empire.
Katoch is a Chandravanshi Rajput clan. Their areas of residence are mainly in the Indian states of Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, and Uttarakhand, and the Union territory of Jammu and Kashmir. Traditionally resided in Kangra Fort, Trigarta Kingdom, Jalandhar, Multan.
Maharaja Gulab Singh Jamwal (1792–1857) was the founder of Dogra dynasty and the first Maharaja of the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir, which was a part of Sikh Empire became the largest princely state under the British Raj, which was created after the defeat of the Sikh Empire in the First Anglo-Sikh War. During the war, Gulab Singh would later side with the British and end up becoming the Prime Minister of Sikh Empire. The Treaty of Amritsar (1846) formalised the transfer of all the lands in Kashmir that were ceded to them by the Sikhs by the Treaty of Lahore.
Zorawar Singh was a military general of the Dogra Rajput ruler, Gulab Singh, who served as the Raja of Jammu under the Sikh Empire. He served as the governor (wazir-e-wazarat) of Kishtwar and extended the territories of the kingdom by conquering Ladakh and Baltistan. He also boldly attempted the conquest of Western Tibet but was killed in battle of To-yo during the Dogra-Tibetan war. In reference to his legacy of conquests in the Himalaya Mountains including Ladakh, Tibet, Baltistan and Skardu as General and Wazir, Zorowar Singh has been referred to as the "Napoleon of India", and "Conqueror of Ladakh".
Bhimber is a town and the headquarters of the eponymous district in Pakistan-administered Azad Kashmir. The town and district are between the Jammu region of Indian-administered Kashmir and Pakistan proper, about 47 km (29 mi) by road southeast of Mirpur.
Poonch, is a town and the administrative headquarters of the Poonch district, of the Indian-administered union territory of Jammu and Kashmir, which is part of the larger disputed territory of Kashmir. It is located near the Line of Control – the de facto border in the disputed region. Poonch shares a de facto border with the Poonch district of the Pakistan-administered, self-governing territory of Azad Kashmir.
Jasrota kingdom in the Himalayan foothills of India was founded in 1064 A.D at south-eastern Jammu between the Ravi and the Ujh rivers which ended in 1815. The remainants of Jasrota kingdom exists as ruined forts, restored temples, water bodies and canals in Hiranagar tehsil, Narowal tehsil, Nagri tehsil, Kathua tehsil, Marheen tehsil, Dinga Amb tehsil, Ramkot tehsil, Mahanpur tehsil, Billawar tehsil.
Poonch District was a district of the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir, which is currently divided between India and Pakistan. The Pakistani part of the erstwhile district is now the Poonch Division in the Azad Kashmir territory, whilst the Indian part of the district is the Poonch district in Jammu and Kashmir. The capital of the Pakistan-controlled side is Rawalakot; while the capital of the Indian-controlled side is Poonch.
The Mangral are a Rajput warrior clan and the historical founders and rulers of the Punjab Hills States of Kotli and Poonch. Their ancestor, Raja Mangar Pal, founded the city of Kotli in modern Azad Kashmir. The Mangrals ruled Kotli State until 1815 and Poonch State until 1819, after which both states were incorporated into the State of Jammu by the Sikh ruler Raja Ranjit Singh.
Jaswan was a precolonial Indian state in modern-day Himachal Pradesh, commanded by the Jaswal Rajput clan. It was founded in 1170 AD by Raja Purab Chand, a cadet of the Katoch lineage, ancient royal family of Kangra. Its capital was Rajpura.
Mankotia is an Indian surname belonging to a Rajput clan. The clan predominantly resides in the Indian states of Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir. The name originates from the town Mankot, now Ramkot, Jammu and Kashmir.
The Jammu division is a revenue and administrative division of the Indian-administered Jammu and Kashmir in the disputed Kashmir region. It is bordered by the Kashmir division to the north. It consists of the districts of Jammu, Doda, Kathua, Ramban, Reasi, Kishtwar, Poonch, Rajouri, Udhampur and Samba. Most of the land is hilly or mountainous, including the Pir Panjal Range which separates it from the Kashmir Valley and part of the Great Himalayas in the eastern districts of Doda and Kishtwar. Its principal river is the Chenab.
Jammu is a city in Indian-administered Jammu and Kashmir in the disputed Kashmir region. It is the winter capital of Jammu and Kashmir, which is an Indian-administered union territory. It is the headquarters and the largest city in Jammu district. Lying on the banks of the river Tawi, the city of Jammu, with an area of 240 km2 (93 sq mi), is surrounded by the Himalayas in the north and the northern plains in the south. Jammu is the second-most populous city of the union territory. Jammu is known as "City of Temples" for its ancient temples and Hindu shrines.
Chibhal, or Bhimber state was an Kingdom founded by a cadet branch of the Katoch Rajputs of Kangra in 1400. Its capital was the town of Bhimber. in modern day Azad Kashmir. It was founded in 1400 AD. By Raja Sultan Khan prince of Kangra state.
Raja Dhian Singh was the longest serving wazir of the Sikh Empire, during the reign of Maharajah Ranjit Singh, and four of his successors. He held the office for twenty five years, from 1818 till his assassination. Dhian Singh was a brother of Raja Gulab Singh of Jammu, who later founded the Dogra dynasty when he became Maharaja of the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir under the British Raj. Another brother Suchet Singh also served the empire. The three brothers were collectively known as the "Dogra brothers" in the Sikh Empire, based on their ethnicity.
Mian Dido Jamwal (1780-1821) is a local legend who rebelled against Gulab Singh during the Sikh Empire of Maharaja Ranjit Singh. He was descended from Raja Hari Dev Singh Jamwal of Jammu. He was killed by the troops of Sikh Empire. He is considered hero for local Dogra Rajputs and is used as a propagator of the regional identity of Jammu.
1 2 3 4 Seth, Chander M. (1 May 2018). "Jammu: The City of Temples – Chapter 2: Founder of the City". Cities' Identity Through Architecture and Arts: Proceedings of the International Conference on Cities' Identity through Architecture and Arts (CITAA 2017), May 11-13, 2017, Cairo, Egypt. Anna Catalani, Zeinab Nour, Antonella Versaci, Dean Hawkes, Hocine Bougdah, Adolf Sotoca, Mahmoud Ghoneem, Ferdinando Trapani. Routledge. ISBN9781351680325. Raja Maldev, fourth King of the Dev dynasty, ruled Jammu from AD 1361 to 1400 (Goswami, 2015) and is believed to be the founder of present day Jammu city. He was a very tall and powerful king of his times. Several legends and ballads in the Dogri language exist in local folk art and depict his bravery, administration and governance. Raja Maldev established his headquarters at Purani Madi in the centre of the city. From 1400 to 1733, ten descendants of Maldev ruled the territory of Jammu. The eleventh ruler of the Maldev dynasty was Raja Ranjit Dev, who ruled from 1733 to 1782. He was known as an apostle of justice, chivalry and administration. He was the most secular and religiously tolerant king. His period is remembered as an era of prosperity, peace and coexistence. In his time, Jammu was the largest state in northern India.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Randhawa, M. S. (2013). Basohli Painting (2nd reprinted.). Lodhi Road, New Delhi: Additional Director General, Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India. p.102. ISBN9788123018065.
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