a Yearbook of Statistics: Sabah, 2002 & Sabah Statistics 2020 Data
Kadazan-Dusun (also written as Kadazandusun or Mamasok Kadazan-Dusun) are the largest ethnic group in Sabah, Malaysia, an amalgamation of the closely related indigenousKadazan and Dusun peoples.[2] They are also known as Mamasok Sabah, meaning "indigenous people of Sabah". Kadazan-Dusun tradition holds that they are the descendants of Nunuk Ragang. Kadazan-Dusun is recognised as an indigenous nation of Borneo with documented heritage by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) since 2004.[3] Kadazan-Dusun is part of bumiputera group in Malaysia and has special rights concerning land, rivers, education and maintaining their own customs.
Several organisations have been established to safeguard the privileges of Kadazan-Dusun in Malaysia, including Pertubuhan Kadazan-Dusun Murut (KDM) Malaysia based in Donggongon, Penampang, Sabah, Malaysia.
Percentage population of Kadazan-Dusun by state constituencies in Sabah, according to 2020 census
Etymology
In 2004, Richard Francis Tunggolou of Kg. Tunoh, Penampang wrote an article The Origins and Meanings of the terms “Kadazan” and “Dusun"[4] and carried out an extensive research exploring the many possible explanations and theories about the origins and meanings of the word ‘Kadazan’ and ‘Dusun’. The article may very well confirm that there is no such race as ‘Kadazandusun’ as being propagated by some. Therefore, the Kadazan and Dusun may be as identical to each other but are vastly different in many ways.[clarification needed]
The "Kadazan" term is popular among the Tangara/Tangaa' tribe on the west coast of Sabah to refer all the native Sabahan tribes while non-Tangara tribes in the interior and eastern part of the state prefer the term "Dusun". Administratively, the Kadazans were called 'Orang Dusun' by the Sultanate (or more specifically the tax-collector), but in reality, the 'Orang Dusun' were Kadazans. An account of this fact was written by the first census made by the North Borneo Company in Sabah, 1881. Administratively, all Kadazans were categorised as Dusuns.[5][6]
Through the establishment of the KCA – Kadazan Cultural Association (KCA was later renamed to KDCA – Kadazan-Dusun Cultural Association) in 1960, this terminology was corrected and replaced by 'Kadazan', which was also used as the official assignation of the non-Muslim natives by the first Chief Minister of North Borneo, Tun Fuad Stephens @ Donald Stephens. When the Federation of Malaysia was formed in 1963, administratively all Dusuns were referred to as Kadazans which sparked opposition from both Kadazan and Dusun sides who wanted the ethnicity term to be officialised and administrate separately. Initially, there were no conflicts with regard to 'Kadazan' as the identity of the 'Orang Dusun' between 1963 and 1984. However, in 1985 through the KCA, the term Dusun was reintroduced after much pressure from various parties desiring a division between the Kadazan and the 'Orang Dusun' once again. This action only worsened the conflict by developing the "Kadazan or Dusun identity crisis" into "Kadazan versus Dusun feud". It was also a largely successful and a precursor to the fall of the ruling political state party Parti Bersatu Sabah (PBS).[5]
In November 1989, through the KCA, PBS coined the new term 'Kadazandusun' to represent both the 'Orang Dusun' and 'Kadazan'. This unified term "Kadazandusun" was unanimously passed as a resolution during the 5th Kadazan Cultural Association's Delegates Conference. During the conference, it was decided that this was the best alternative approach to resolve the "Kadazan versus Dusun" conflicts that had impeded the growth and development of the Kadazan-Dusun since "Kadazan versus Dusun" sentiments were politicised in the early 1960s. It was the best alternative generic identity as well as the most appropriate approach in resolving the "Kadazan versus Dusun" conflicts. Although this action is seen as the best alternative to resolving the ongoing "Kadazan versus Dusun" conflicts since the 1960s, its positive effect is only seen by the year 2000 to the present day when the new generation is no longer in the "Kadazan versus Dusun" feudalism mentality. The unification has since strengthened the ties and brought the Kadazandusun community together as an ethnic group towards more positive and prosperous growth in terms of urbanisation, socio-cultural, economic and political development.[5]
The Orang Sungai or Paitanic group welcomed this resolution, however, the Rungus tribe refused to be called neither as Kadazan, Dusun or any combination of the two. They prefer to be called "Momogun," which means "indigenous people" in Kadazan, Dusun, and Rungus because the three groups belong to the same language family that is Dusunic. Meanwhile, the Muruts and Lundayeh also refused the term, but remain their warm relationship with KDCA and responded positively in ways to unite the two largest Sabahan native groups.
Nowadays, the umbrella term "KDMR" (an acronym for Kadazan, Dusun, Murut, and Rungus) is very popular among the younger generations of the three native groups in Sabah to differ themselves from the Malay or Muslim Bumiputra in the state. Another modification of this term is "Momogun KDMR" in Kadazan-Dusun and Rungus or "Mamagun KDMR" in Murut.
Origins of the term 'Kadazan'
There is no proper historical record that exists pertaining to the origins of the term or its originator. Between the late 1950s and early 1960s, the term "Kadazan" has always been theorised by local folks as derivatives from the word "kakadazan" which means towns, or "kadai" which means shops, the term itself is of a Tangaa' dialect (see Tangga language). The derived term was speculated as a reference to townies, or communities living near shops. This has also been explained in an article by Richard Francis Tunggolou. However, there is evidence that the term has been used long before the 1950s. According to Owen Rutter (The Pagans of North Borneo, 1929, p31), "The Dusun usually describes himself generically as a tulun Tindal (landsman), or on the West Coast, particularly at Papar, as a Kadazan".[7] Rutter started working in Sabah from 1910, and left Sabah in 1914. During this time interval, both Penampang and Papar district was yet to be developed as towns, therefore rejects the derivation theory altogether. To seek better information of the true meaning of the term "Kadazan", two high priestesses of Borneo or locally referred to as Bobohizan (Kadazan) or Bobolian (Dusun) was interviewed. When the Bobolian of Dusun Lotud descent was asked on the meaning and definition of "Kadazan", her answer was, "people of the land". This definition was endorsed when Bobohizan Dousia Moujing of Kadazan Penampang descent confirmed that the Kadazan has always been used to describe the real people of the land. That substantiated Rutter's remark on Kadazan people in his book.[5][6]
Origins of the term 'Dusun'
One interesting fact about the Dusuns is that they do not have the word 'Dusun' in their vocabulary, and the term Dusun is an exonym. Unlike the term "Kadazan," which means "people of the land", "Dusun" means "farm/orchard" in the Malay language. It has been suggested that the term 'Orang Dusun' was a term used by the Sultan of Brunei, who was a Malay to refer to the ethnic groups of inland farmers in present-day Sabah.[8] Since most of the west coast of North Borneo was under the influence of the Sultan of Brunei, taxes called 'Duis' (also referred to as the 'River Tax' on the area of southeast of North Borneo) were collected by the sultanate from the 'Orang Dusun', or 'Dusun people'. Hence, since 1881, after the establishment of the British North Borneo Company, the British administration categorised the linguistically similar, 12 main and 33 sub-tribes collectively as 'Dusun' though among themselves they are simply known in their own dialect as just "human" or in their Bobolian term "kadayan" or "kadazan" (in Tangaa version). The Tambanuo and Bagahak, who had converted to Islam for religious reasons, had preferred to be called "Sungei" and "Idaan" respectively although they come from the same sub-tribes. It was also suggested that "Orang Dusun" or "Dusun People" also being used as a term to refer to the forest-dwellers, and farming primitive tribes in the interior of northern Borneo. The usage of this term was then continued by the North Borneo Chartered Company and British colonial governments
Genetic relatedness
According to a Genome-wide SNP genotypic data studies by human genetics research team from University Malaysia Sabah (2018),[9] the Northern Borneon Dusun (Sonsogon, Rungus, Lingkabau and Murut) are closely related to Taiwan natives (Ami, Atayal) and non–Austro-Melanesian Filipinos (Visayan, Tagalog, Ilocano, Minanubu), rather than populations from other parts of Borneo Island.
Origins of the Kadazandusun people
Since the 90s, it has been said that the Kadazandusun people are descendants from China. Most recently, rumour has it that Kadazandusun is closely related, or might be a descendant of the Bunun tribe in Taiwan. Such speculations were made from observed similarities of physical features, and cultures between the Kadazandusun and the Bunun people. However, these rumours were proven irrelevant through both mtDNA and Y-DNA studies.
mtDNA studies
mtDNA haplogroup MmtDNA haplogroup M1
Maternal or Matrilineal Studies Using mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), is a test used to explore genetic ancestry from the mother using mtDNA that is obtained from outside of a nucleus cell that isn't contaminated by the presence of Y-chromosome. According to a study published in 2014, by Kee Boon Pin on 150 volunteers from the Kadazandusun people all over the Sabah region, the Kadazandusun people belongs to 9 mtDNAHaplogroups(subjected to the numbers and types of samples involved in the study), with Haplogroup M being the highest frequency, where it represents (60/150 40%) of all maternal lineages. Followed by Haplogroup R (26/150 17.33%), Haplogroup E (22/150 14.67%), Haplogroup B (20/150 13.33%), Haplogroup D (9/150 6%), Haplogroup JT (6/150 4%), Haplogroup N (4/150 2.67%), Haplogroup F (2/150 1.33) and Haplogroup HV (1/150 0.67%). These mtDNA Haplogroups have multiple subgroup distribution into several subclades due to genome mutations for thousands of years. The Haplogroup M subclades founded were: M7b1'2'4'5'6'7'8 (22%), M7c3c (12.67%), M31a2 (0.67%), and M80 (3.33%). The Haplogroup E subclades founded were: E1a1a (8%), E1b+16261 (4.67%), and E2 (2%). The Haplogroup B subclades founded were: B4a1a (3.33%), B4b1 (1.33%), B4b1a+207 (3.33%), B4c2 (0.67%), B4j (0.67%), B5a (2%), and B5a1d (1.33%). The Haplogroup D subclades founded were: D4s (1.33%), and D5b1c1 (4.67%). For Haplogroup F, H, JT, R and N, there were only 1 subclade founded for each haplogroup: F1a4a1 (1.33%), HV2 (0.67%), JT (4%), R9c1a (17.33%), N5 (2.67%).[10] Kee Boon Pin studies confirmed the mtDNA studies conducted by S. G. Tan, on his claim of genetic relation between Kadazandusun to another Taiwan aboriginal, the Paiwan people through the sharing of Haplogroup N as the fundamental DNA.[11] However, in his studies published in 1979, S.G. Tan did not emphasise the significant of this finding to the Out Of Taiwan theory due to the very small percentage of Haplogroup N found in the Kadazandusun test subjects that is insufficient to represent the whole Kadazandusun ethnicity. S.G. Tan did state that the Kadazandusun ethnic have close genome relation to the other ethnics currently present in Borneo, Peninsular Malaysia and the Philippines, including the Ibans, Visayan, Ifugao, Jakun Aboriginal Malays, Dayak Kalimantan, and Tagalog.[11][10]
According to Ken-ichi Shinoda in his study published in November 2014, the Bunun ethnic have the mtDNA of haplogroup B (41.5%), followed by F (30.3%), E (23.6%), M (3.4%) and N (1.1%).[12] Although the Kadazandusun ethnic group shared some of maternal mtDNA haplogroups with the Bunun and Paiwan ethnic groups of Taiwan, the high frequency results of haplogroup M and low frequencies of haplogroups B, E, F and N (insignificant to represent the entire said nation) in the genetics of Kadazandusun ethnicity is enough to refute the theory of Kadazandusun ethnic origin from Taiwan. Kee Boon Pin studies also mentioned that the mtDNA of the Kadazandusun ethnic are more diverse with plenty of variability that is missing which might have depleted (through mutations) in the mtDNA of the Bunun ethnic. Genetic depletion indicates newer mutation from the maternal DNA group. Professor Hirofumi Matsumura, who studies in Genetics and Anthropology, stated that mtDNA sub-haplogroup M7b1'2'4'5'6'7'8 founded in majority of Kadazandusun DNA is one of the oldest mutations from M7 series from haplogroup M that was founded in ancient graveyards in the jungles of Borneo, with estimated age around 12,700 years. It is even older than most discovered ancient M7 series, and spread throughout the Southeast Asia continent creating more M7 mutation series. The mutation series products from M7b1'2'4'5'6'7'8 are present today in several ethnics including Jakun the aboriginal of peninsular Malaysia, Dusun in Brunei, Tagalog and Visayas in the Philippines, and Dayak in Kalimantan and Riau Islands of Indonesia.[13]
Y-DNA studies
Y chromosome DNA test (Y-DNA test) is a genealogical DNA test that is used to explore a man's patrilineal or direct father's-line ancestry. According to a study by Prof. Dr. Zafarina Zainuddin from Universiti Sains Malaysia, Kadazandusun ethnic belongs to Y-DNA haplogroup of O2-P31 (O-268), which she believes plays an important role in the modern Malay genome sequence.[14][15] O2-P31 is a mutation product of M214 as a maternal haplogroup with the following mutation sequences: M214> M175> P31> O2. This study was also validated by a genetic study group from National Geographic that revealed STR test results through samples taken from Kadazandusun residents of Belud City in 2011. The STR results were: DYS393: 15 DYS439: 12 DYS388: 12 DYS385a: 16 DYS19: 15 DYS389-1: 13 DYS390: 25 DYS385b: 20 DYS391: 11 DYS389-2: NaN DYS426: 11 DYS392: 13, which explains the specific composition of the Y chromosome according to the Y-DNA haplogroup of O2-P31 (O-M268). Mutation sequences for O2-P31 are shown in the Phylogenetic tree below.
Mutation of Y-DNA O2-P31
According to the Y-DNA study by Jean A Trejaut, Estella S Poloni, and Ju-Chen Yen, the Bunun ethnic in Taiwan belongs to Y-DNA haplogroups of O1a2-M50 and O2a1a-M88. Both of these Y-DNA haplogroups are also the result of mutations of M214 as their maternal Y-DNA haplogroups with the following mutation sequences: M214> M175> MSY2.2> M119> M50> O1a2, and M214> M175> P31> M95> M88> M111 / M88> PK4> O2a1a.[16] Mutation sequences for O1a2-M50 and O2a1a-M88 shown in the Phylogenetic tree below.
Mutasi Y-DNA O2a1a & O1a2
The age of Y-DNA haplogroup O2-P31 (O-M268) is estimated to be at around 34,100 years through conducted DNA ageing tests on the ancient human bones discovered in Niah Cave, Sarawak.[17][15] The mean ages of Y-DNA haplogroups of O1a2-M50 and O2a1a-M88 are 33,103 and 28,500, respectively. From the study's result, the claims related to Kadazandusun being ancient migrants from Taiwan are completely irrelevant. This is because the age of the Y-DNA haplogroup O2-P31 belong to the Kadazandusun ethnic group is older compared to the Bunun Y-DNA haplogroups in Taiwan.
Conclusion
Initially, the purpose of starting the genetic haplogroup lineage was to determine the origin of the human lineage. However, the objective is yet to be verified to this day due to a lack of pure evidences that is free from contamination. The results obtained from genetic studies so far can only prove the human global travelling activities, but not as evidence to determine the place of origin of migrating humans.[13] For example, the discovery of the Tianyuan man that has no conclusive answer to his place of origin.[18] Based on the mtDNA and Y-DNA studies, as well as philosophies from genetic and anthropology experts, it is plausible to conclude that Kadazandusun people are indeed the aboriginals of Sabah, and Borneo, as well as one of the leading genetic contributors to Southeast Asian societies.
The majority of the Kadazandusuns are Christians, mainly Roman Catholics[20] and some Protestants.[21]Islam is also practised by a growing minority.[22][23][24]
Before the missionaries came, animism[citation needed] was widely practiced. The religion is Momolianism i.e. the two-way communication between the unseen spirit world and the seen material world facilitated by the services of a category of Kadazan-Dusun people called Bobohizans/Bobolians. The Kadazan-Dusun belief system centers around the spirit or entity called Bambarayon. It revolved around the belief that spirits ruled over the planting and harvesting of rice, a profession that had been practised for generations. Special rituals would be performed before and after each harvest by a tribal priestess known as a Bobohizan.
Harvest Festival or Pesta Kaamatan is an annual celebration by the people of Kadazandusun in Sabah. It is a one-month celebration starting from 1 to 31 May. In modern-day of Kaamatan Festival celebration, 30 and 31 May are the climax dates for the state-level celebration that happens at the place of the yearly Kaamatan Festival host. Today's Kaamatan celebration is very synonymous with beauty pageant competition known as Unduk Ngadau, a singing competition known as Sugandoi, Tamu, non-halal food and beverages stalls, and handicraft arts and cultural performances in traditional houses.[27]
During the old days, Kaamatan was celebrated to give thanks to ancient God and rice spirits for the bountiful harvesting to ensure continuous paddy yield for the next paddy plantation season. Nowadays, the majority of the Kadazan-dusun people have embraced Christianity and Islam. Although the Kaamatan is still celebrated as an annual tradition, it is no longer celebrated for the purpose to meet the demands of the ancestral spiritual traditions and customs, but rather in honouring the customs and traditions of the ancestors. Today, Kaamatan is more symbolic as a reunion time with family and loved ones. Domestically, modern Kaamatan is celebrated as per individual personal aspiration with the option of whether or not to serve the Kadazandusun traditional food and drinks which are mostly non-halal.[28]
Traditional foods and drinks
A few of the most well known traditional food of the Kadazandusun people are hinava, noonsom, pinaasakan, bosou, tuhau, kinoring, sinalau, pork soup and lihing (rice wine) chicken soup. Some of the well known traditional drinks of Kadazandusun are tapai, tumpung, lihing and bahar.[29]
Traditional costumes
The traditional costume of the Kadazandusun is generally called the Koubasanan costume, made out of black velvet fabric with various decorations using beads, flowers, coloured buttons, golden laces, linen, and unique embroidery designs.[30] The traditional costume that is commonly commercialised as the cultural icon of the Kadazandusun people is the Koubasanan costume from the Penampang district. The koubasanan costume from the Penampang district consists of Sinuangga worn by women and Gaung for men. Sinuangga comes with a waistband called Himpogot (made out of connected silver coins, also known as the money belt), Tangkong (made out of copper loops or rings fastened by strings or threads), Gaung (decorated with gold lace and silver buttons) and a hat that is called Siga (made out of weaved dastar fabric). The decorations and designs of the koubasanan costume are usually varied by region.[30] For example, the koubasanan dress design for Kadazandusun women of Penampang usually comes in a set of sleeveless blouse combined with long skirts and no hats, while the koubasanan dress design for Kadazandusun women of Papar comes in a set of long sleeves blouse combined with knee-length skirts and wore with a siung hat. There are over 40 different designs of the Koubasanan costume across Sabah that belongs to different tribes of the Kadazandusun community.[29]
Traditional dance
Sumazau dance is the traditional dance of Kadazandusun. Usually, the sumazau dance is performed by a pair of men and women dancers wearing traditional costumes. Sumazau dance is usually accompanied by the beats and rhythms of seven to eight gongs. The opening movement for sumazau dance is the parallel swing of the arms back and forth at the sides of the body, while the feet springs and move the body from left to right. Once the opening dance moves are integrated with the gong beats and rhythms, the male dancer will chant "heeeeee!" (mamangkis) indicating that it is time to change the dance moves. Upon hearing this chant, dancers will raise their hands to the sides of their body and in line with their chest, and move their wrists and arms up and down resembling the movement of a flying bird. There is plenty of choreography of sumazau dance, but the signature dance move of the sumazau will always be the flying bird arms movement, parallel arms swinging back and forth at the sides of the body, and the springing feet.[29][31]
Traditional music
The Kadazandusun traditional music is usually orchestrated in the form of a band consist of musicians using traditional musical instruments, such as the bamboo flute, sompoton, togunggak, gong, and kulintangan. Musical instruments in Sabah are classified into Cordophones (tongkungon, gambus, sundatang or gagayan), Erophon (suling, turali or tuahi, bungkau, sompoton), and Idofon (togunggak, gong or tagung, kulintangan) and membranophones (kompang, gendang or tontog). The most common musical instruments in Kadazandusun ceremonies are gong and kulintangan. The gong beats usually varies by regions and districts, and the gong beats that is often played at the official Kaamatan celebration in KDCA is the gong beats from the Penampang district.[29][31]
Traditional handicrafts
Kadazandusun people use natural materials as resources in producing handicrafts, including the bamboo, rattan, lias, calabash, and woods. Few of the many handicrafts that are synonym to the Kadazandusun people are wakid, barait, sompoton, pinakol, siung hat, parang, paddy cutter linggaman, and gayang.
Before the mentioned handicrafts were promoted and commercialised to represent the Kadazandusun cultures, they were once tools that were used in daily lives. In fact, some of these handicrafts are still used for its original purpose to this day. Wakid and barait are used to carry harvested crops from farms. Sompoton is a musical instrument. Pinakol is an accessory used in ceremonials and rituals. Parang/machetes, gayang/swords and tandus (a kind of spear) are used as farming and hunting tools, as well as weapons in series of civil wars of the past, which indirectly made the Kadazandusun known as headhunters in the past.[29]
Headhunting practice
The practice of headhunting is one of the ancient traditions practiced by the Kadazan-Dusun community during the times of the civil wars. The Kadazan-Dusun refer to this practice as mangayau and the beheader as pangayou or pangait and tonggorib. In the past, Kadazan-Dusun people often go to sangod (war) and behead their enemy's and keep their skull as trophy and for spiritual reason.
The heads of the beheaded enemies were collected not only as triumph trophies but also for spiritual and traditional medicinal practices. The beheading tradition was not intended for the purpose of war alone, but rather to meet the society's cultural demands and expectations, and to fulfill the sacrificial requirements of the ancient rituals.
In the olden times, a Kadazan-Dusun man's pride and power were measured by his courage and physical strength in combat, as well as the number of heads of fallen enemies that were brought home. The "rule of thumb" for headhunting practice was that the defeated enemy had to be alive during the time of the beheading, as it would be meaningless to behead the deceased. This is due to the traditional Kadazan-Dusun belief that man's intelligence, spirit and courage are in his head (called tandahau), while the heart functions as the life source to the body. In other words, a dead heart means dead (useless) head. Shall any beheader go against this rule, the beheader will be condemned by a curse that will bring unfortunate fate upon him.
Kadazan-Dusun tribes keep their enemy's skulls in a house called bangkawan. Bobolian perform ritual to speak with the spirits in the skulls, now as servants, to ask them to protect their community as they believed the deceased spirits still alive inside the skulls. Before placed in bangkawan, the heads hanged under a huge tree until only the skull remained. A huge rock will placed under the tree. This rock called Sagindai and marked whenever a head hanged under the tree. For example, 10 totok (marks) on the Sagindai rock indicate that ten heads had hanged in that tree.
The three main ethnic groups in Sabah that are known for headhunting practices history are the Kadazan-Dusun, Rungus and the Murut.[32][33]
There are five objectives for the headhunting practices.
In a great war
To prove the strength of the heroes and clans over the fallen enemies
As war victory evidence
The head will be kept in the house of the skull (bangkawan) of the victorious clan
For small scale civil war or family feud
To cease the existence of the enemies and their families
The head of the enemy will be kept in the victorious family home for the purpose to enslave the enemy's spirit as a housekeeping talisman/amulet
Empowering manhood
Beheading is a practice that proves courage and bravery
A man with no courage and bravery will be out of place in the society and end up spouseless
Self-promotion as the village head
A man must obtain at least 10 heads of the enemy clan in order to gain honour and approvals from his own clan
These 10 heads are also important in convincing his clan that he is worthy as a war leader
Promoting the bravery of a hero
The ancient Kadazan-Dusun believed that the strength and spirit of the beheaded enemy would be gained by the beheader
Enemies beheading is also a way in proving the clan that a hero is worthy as a mighty warrior
The beheaded heads will be kept and maintained using ancient practices and rituals. One of the uses of the beheaded heads is as a housekeeper amulet or talisman. The ancient Kadazan-Dusun people believed that every house should have its guardians. Thus, they will use the "tandahau" spirit from the beheaded head for the purpose of protecting the house and its inhabitants from the attacks of enemies and wild animals. It is also important to place beheaded heads under the newly constructed bridge. The ancient people of Kadazandusun believed that every river had a spirit of water that is called tambaig. The beheaded heads will be placed or hung below the bridge as a peace offering for the tambaig so that the tambaig will not demolish the bridge. Beheaded heads are also used by bobohizan or bobolian for medical purposes, as well as the worship of the ancestors' spirits. The most common weapons used by the ancient headhunters of the Kadazandusun are Ilang, sakuit/mandau machetes, gayang swords, tandus/adus spears, and a taming wood as a shield. This gruesome practice has been banned and no longer practice today. However, there is a rumour saying that primitive Kadazandusun clans living in isolation in the deep jungles are still actively practising the headhunting culture today. Yet, there has been no evidence to support this claim.[32][33]
Kadazandusun Cultural Association Sabah
The 2014 Kaamatan celebration in Penampang, Sabah with the Kadazan Dusun Cultural Association (KDCA) being represented by their Deputy President, Clarance Bongkos Malakun on the far left.
The Kadazandusun Cultural Association Sabah (KDCA), previously known as Kadazan Cultural Association (KCA), is a non-political association of 40 indigenous ethnic communities of Sabah, registered under the Malaysian Societies Act 1966, on 29 April 1966 by the then Deputy Registrar of Societies Malaysia, J. P. Rutherford. It is headed by Huguan Siou Honorable Tan Sri Datuk Seri Panglima Joseph Pairin Kitingan.
The title "Huguan Siou" Office is an institutionalised Paramount Leadership of the Koisaan. The power and responsibility to bestow the Kadazandusun Paramount Leadership Title "Huguan Siou" rests with the KDCA, which, upon the vacancy of the Huguan Siou's Office, may hold an Extraordinary Delegate's Conference to specifically resolve the installation of their Huguan Siou.
However, if no leader is considered worthy of the Huguan Siou's title, the office would rather be left vacant (out of respect for the highly dignified and nearly sacred office of the Kadazandusun's Huguan Siou), until such time as a deserving Kadazandusun leader is undoubtedly established.
The birth of the Society of Kadazan Penampang in 1953 paved the way for the formation of the Kadazan Cultural Association Sabah (KCA) in 1963, which in turn was transformed into the present KDCA on 25 September 1991.
From its inception in the early 1950s, the KDCA has focused much of its efforts on the preservation, development, enrichment, and promotion of the Kadazandusun multi-ethnic cultures. The KDCA's Triennial Delegates Conference provides a forum where the various Kadazandusun multi-ethnic representatives discuss major issues affecting them and their future and take up both individual and collective stands and actions to resolve common challenges.
The KDCA is involved in various activities related to research and documentation, preservation, development, and promotions of the Kadazandusun culture: language and literary works; Bobolians & Rinaits; traditional medicine, traditional food, and beverages; music, songs, dances, and dramas; traditional arts, crafts, and designs; traditional sports; traditional wears and costumes. Lately, along with the growing international co-operation of the world's indigenous peoples, indigenous knowledge, intellectual property, and traditional resource rights conservation, enhancement and protection have also become new areas of the KDCA's concern and responsibility. The KDCA fosters unity, friendship, and co-operation among the multi-racial population of Sabah through its participatory cultural programs and celebrations such as the Village, District and State levels Annual "Kaamatan Festival". It has sent Cultural Performance Troupes on goodwill tours to the other Malaysian States, to neighbouring Asian Countries, to Europe, America, Canada and New Zealand.
KDCA has a youth and students' wing, Kadazandusun Youth Development Movement (KDYDM). The movement's main aims are to encourage more participation of the young generation in the activities of the association and be empowered in various fields so that they would be able to help develop the Kadazandusun community in general.
Kadazandusun is the unification term and collective name for more than 70 sub-tribes or suku (payat in Kadazan-Dusun language) who call themselves as Dusun or Kadazan. Before the terms "Kadazan" and exonym "Dusun" coined, there is no name for the nation and every tribes and sub-tribes named after their place of origins or the name of their ancestor or their past leader.
"Ethnicity" or "nation" and "people" or "man" in Dusunic languages is known as tinaru/tina'uh and tulun/tuhun respectively. In Paitanic languages, "people" is lobu. So Kadazan-Dusun people in their native languages called as Tinaru Kadazan-Dusun.
Linguistically, all Kadazan-Dusun tribes (including Rungus) belong to Dusunic languages family except Dusun Bonggi (variety of Molbog language) and Lahad Datu Dusuns who spoke Idaanic languages, while all Orang Sungai tribes spoke Paitanic languages. Paitanic and Dusunic languages families are closely related, together they formed Greater Dusunic languages family.
However, only the Kadazans and Dusun classified as a single ethnic group by the government while Rungus and Orang Sungai grouped as "Bumiputera Lain" along with Bisaya, Tidong, Sino-natives and other Sabahan natives ethnic group.
List of Kadazan-Dusuns tribes and sub-tribes:
Kadazan
Penampang Kadazan (Bangkaakon and Tangaa' tribe of Penampang merged to form Kadazan)
Inobong Dusun (descendant of Tambunan Liwan who migrated to the Penampang lowlands in the late 19th century to trade or mongimbadi through the Salt Trail which crosses the Crocker Range, settled in Inobong area of the Ulu Moyog region of Penampang district and assimilated with Bangkaakon and Tangara tribes already present there)
Papar Kadazan (Tangaa' and Kwijau of Papar assimilated to form Papar Kadazan)
Kinarut Dusun (this group was product of Bangkaakon and Tagahas assimilation)
Malapi or Ulu Kimanis Dusun (Tagahas who migrated to Ulu Kimanis, probably from Ulu Papar)
Membakut Kadazan (consist of two united tribes in Membakut sub-district of Beaufort, the Kadazan and Kuizou)
Dusun
Central Dusun or Bunduliwan
Central Dusun is the main branch of Dusun language and its spoken by eight distinct, but linguistically related tribes (in terms of mutual intelligibility of dialects) namely Liwan, Bundu, Tindal, Gobukon, Tagahas, Luba, Garo and Talantang.
Liwan group:
Liwan of Ranau, Tambunan as well as Keningau (largest and widest distributed Dusun tribe)
Bira/Karanaan of Tambunan (Tuhawon sub-tribe assimilated with Bundu-Liwan)
Monsok Dusun (Tambunan Talantang who are highly influenced by Liwan dialect)
Randagong/Tudan (Ranau Tagahas near Ulu Tuaran assimilated with Liwan)
Klias River Dusun (descendants of the Liwan tribe from Tambunan who migrated to Beaufort)
Bundu group:
Bundu (original Dusun of Tuaran district before Lotud tribe becomes the predominant subgroup, now only found in the village of Kiulu, on the outskirts of Tamparuli township, but now assimilated with the Lotud in terms of intermarriage)
Sinulihan (this tribe resides at the upper reach of Ulu Tuaran. Their dialect is mixed Bundu-Tindal, now this tribe is completely assimilated with other tribes such as the Lotud and the Tindal tribes by means of intermarriage)
Magatang (while Bunduliwan of Keningau is dominated by Liwan, Magatang Dusun is not Liwan but mixed of Talantang and Bundu. This group is concentrated around Magatang village in Keningau district)
Tindal group:
Tindal consist of two main dialect groups, the Tempasuk Dusun (lowland Tindal) and Nabalu Dusun (hill Tindal)
Bangkahak (Tobilung group assimilated with Tindal)
Melangkap (Kota Belud Tagahas group assimilated with Tindal)
Bundu and Tindal are closely related and most probably came from a single parent tribe.
Tagahas group:
Tagahas (once a large group, now Tagahas settled in Toboh area of Tambunan, Ulu Kiulu of Tuaran, Ulu Papar of Penampang, and Kaiduan area in Papar district)
Pahu (earliest group who splitted with Tagahas and settled in Kg Pahu, Kiulu, Tuaran district)
Tibabar (originally a Tuhawon sub-tribe, Tibabar allied with Tagahas during the Tambunan War and eventually assimilated with them)
Kadayan (not to be confused with Sabah Malay sub-ethnic group also named Kedayan, this Dusun group are mixed Tobilung-Tagahas group settled in lowland areas such as Inanam, Menggatal and Telipok in Kota Kinabalu; also assimilated with the Bundu-Liwan group by means of intermarriage and also interculturation across dialectal/linguistical and/or racial factors)
Gobukon-Luba-Garo group:
Gobukon (Kota Marudu, Paitan sub-district of Beluran)
Luba (Kota Marudu)
Tagaro or Garo (Kota Marudu)
Talantang group:
Talantang
Tagaas
Pulutan
Tolinting
Monindal
Gana
Toriwad
Manampaka
Mukin
Tanggal
Kogosingan
Tinagas
Tuhawon
Talantang was once a large group and dominated Tambunan and Ulu Sugut area of Ranau before being replaced or assimilated by other Dusun tribes especially the Liwan.
Northern Dusun
Northern Dusun is a grouping of Dusuns in northern part of Sabah. Morever, they speak a branch of Dusun language known as Rungus-Tobilung-Maragang.
All this tribes are closely related and came from a single parent tribe called Mononggingi.
Southern Dusun
Southern Dusun categorised according to geographic location of Dusun people reside in the southern part of West Coast Sabah. While Lotud included in this group because their language belong to Bisayic branch of Dusunic language family together with Tatana, Kwijau and Kadazan Membakut.
Kwijau is related to Tatana and Lotud tribes and their possible origins maybe came from Papar district where it merged with Tangaa' tribe to form Kadazan Papar. Kuizou and Kadazan in Membakut are related to the Kwijau of Keningau. The Bunduliwan tribes call this tribe as "Kuriyou." The tribe's classical name is Mempakad and reside in Bingkor, Keningau.
Gana group:
Gana
Gana is a Dusunised Murut tribe of Keningau and maybe a sub-tribe of Murut Nabai. They live side by side with Kwijau and inter-marriage is exclusively recurring between the two tribes. Their former name is Talinting.
Bakud group:
Kuizou
Papar
Membakut Kadazan
Membakut Dusun
Membakut Orang Sungai
"Kadazandusun Bakud" is a umbrella term of various Kadazan and Dusun tribes in Membakut subdistrict of Beaufort.
Tatana is a Kadazandusun tribe in Kuala Penyu and Beaufort district. Their language belongs to the Bisayic branch of the Dusunic languages family, but their tribe also actually belongs to the Dusunised Murut stock just like the Dusun Gana in Keningau, albeit this tribe also have partial distant ethnic Chinese blood as a result of interculturation.
Eastern Dusun
Eastern Dusun is eastern branch of Dusun language. In term of dialect, Eastern Dusun intermediate the Kadazan, Dusun and Rungus which consists of four main groups: Dusun Labuk, Dusun Ulu Kinabatangan, Minokok-Tompizos and Sandayo.
Dusun Labuk group:
Bayok
Dalamason
Kavananan
Koroli
Kotoring
Kisayap
Kisoko
Kirulu
Kivulu
Kudundung
Liwogu
Longgom
Lolobuon
Malapi
Pauh
Pilantong
Putih
Sangau
Sogilitan
Sogo
Sungangon
Tandaa'
Tanggal
Tilau-Ilau
Tindakon
Tompulung
Tungud
Turavid
Dusun Labuk is an unification term of various Eastern Dusun in Beluran, Telupid, Kinabatangan, Tongod and Sandakan towns of the east coast especially along the Labuk River valley. According to Dusun Labuk people, they descended from Aki Tinggoron, one of the leaders in pre-migration Nunuk Ragang era. They speak the same language with the Kinabatangan Dusun group namely Labuk-Kinabatangan Kadazan.
Ulu Kinabatangan Dusun group:
Sukang
Mangkaak
Kunatong
Korizou/Porizou
Pingas
Ulu Kinabatangan Dusuns concentrated in Tongod district located at upper reach of Kinabatangan. Their languanges and customs strongly influenced the Orang Sungai tribes in the district. Mangkaak, Kunatong, and Porizou came from a single tribe. Sukang and Mangkaak are closely related, while Pingas is maybe a Mangkaak sub-tribe before.
Actually Minokok and Tompizos speak a variety of Northern Dusun language and maybe a dialect of Rungus or Tobilung but grouped in Eastern Dusun category because they reside in inland eastern Sabah.
Paitan Dusun:
Sandayo
Sandayo is a Kadazandusun tribe in Paitan sub-district of Beluran and Pitas. Their language belong to Labuk-Kinabatangan Kadazan group and closely related to Dusun Labuk.
Lahad Datu Dusun
Dusun tribes in Lahad Datu district, East Coast Sabah.
Ulu Segama group:
Subpan or Sagamo
Actually Dusun Subpan is a Ida'anic tribe but speak a Paitanic language due to assimilation with Orang Sungai from Kinabatangan. Now Dusun Subpan is considered a Kadazandusun tribe native to Sabah's East Coast and reside in Ulu Segama, Lahad Datu.
Tungku group:
Begak
Dusun Begak is a Ida'anic tribe who speak a variety of Ida'an language but now is considered to be a Kadazandusun tribe and native to Tungku sub-district, Lahad Datu.
Banggi Islands Dusun
Bonggi
Dusun Bonggi is a tribe native to Banggi Islands, Kudat district. However, their languange is not Dusunic but related to the Molbog language in Palawan, Philippines.
Momogun Rungus
Rungus (consist of several payat or tribes like Kirangavan, Nuluw, Gandahon, Gombizau, Pilapazan, all in Kudat, Tupak in Pitas, and Tangkarason in Beluran)
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Kadazan-Dusun languages
Most of the Kadazan and Dusun languages belong to Dusunic languages family. Dusun Lotud, Dusun Kwijau, and Dusun Tatana came from the Bisayic-branch of the language group. Bonggi language is a variety of Molbog language of Palawan Islands, Philippines. Lahad Datu Dusuns belong to Idaan language family. The Orang Sungai speaks Paitanic languages, closely related to Dusunic languages family, together they form Greater Dusunic languages family. Dusun Gana language belong to Murutic languages family.
Dusunic languages family split into two branches, Dusunic and Bisayic. All Dusunic languages are highly mutually intelligible among each other's but lowly mutually intelligible with Bisayic languages. However, now Bisayic-speaking tribes and other non-Dusunic tribes also know Bunduliwan dialect, a standard Kadazan-Dusun language.
Under the efforts of the Kadazandusun Cultural Association Sabah, the standard Kadazan-Dusun language is of the central Bundu-Liwan dialect spoken in Bundu and Liwan (now parts of the present-day districts of Ranau, Tambunan, and Keningau). Dusun Bundu-liwan's selection was based on it being the most mutually intelligible when conversing with other Dusun or Kadazan dialect.
Alto Linus, former Malaysian and Sabah footballer.
Arthur Joseph Kurup, current Deputy Minister of Science Technology and Innovation, president for United Sabah People's Party (PBRS) and current member of parliament for Pensiangan.
Bernard Giluk Dompok, Malaysian ambassador to the Vatican from 2016 to 2018, former chief minister of Sabah and former federal minister.
Clarence Mansul, former deputy minister of Malaysia and former member of parliament for Penampang.[34]
Dusun is the collective name of an indigenous ethnic group to the Malaysian state of Sabah of North Borneo. Collectively, they form the largest ethnic group in Sabah. The Dusun people have been internationally recognised as indigenous to Borneo since 2004 as per the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO).
The Kadazans are an ethnic group indigenous to the state of Sabah in Malaysia. They are found mainly in Penampang on the west coast of Sabah, the surrounding locales, and various locations in the interior.
Keningau is the capital of the Keningau District in the Interior Division of Sabah, Malaysia. It is the fifth-largest town in Sabah, as well one of the oldest. Keningau is between Tambunan and Tenom. The town had an estimated population of 173,130. Dusuns, Muruts and Lundayehs are the major ethnics in Keningau.
The Momogun Rungus are an Austronesian ethnic group indigenous to Sabah, Malaysia. They primarily live in northern Sabah especially in Kudat Peninsula, Kota Marudu, Pitas and Beluran. A sub-group of the Kadazan-Dusun, they have a distinct language, dress, architecture, customs, and oral literature from other Dusunic sub-groups. There are around 74,000 Rungus people in the state.
Nunuk Ragang is a site traditionally considered as the location of the original home of the ancestors of the Kadazan-Dusun natives who inhabit most of northern Borneo. The site, nearby a village named Tampias, is located at the intersection of the left and right branches of the Liwagu River to the east of Ranau and Tambunan in Sabah. The two river branches joined up to flow into the Labuk river and drain out into the Sulu Sea. At the site, and under a giant banyan tree, a settlement referred to as Nunuk Ragang was founded. The giant banyan tree was said to be able to give shade to a longhouse sheltering 10 families in it. The legend about Nunuk Ragang had been passed down via oral traditions to the younger generations. No archaeological dig has been carried out to establish the veracity of the legend.
Kaamatan or Pesta Kaamatan is a form of harvest festival celebrated on 30 and 31 of May annually in the state of Sabah and Federal Territory of Labuan in Malaysia. It is normally celebrated by the ethnic Kadazan-Dusuns, as well as by other related ethnic groups in the state, and lasts for the whole of the month of May, ending with a public holiday on a date selected by a priestess known as the bobohizan.
Coastal Kadazan, also known as Dusun Tangara, is a dialect of the Central Dusun as well as a minority language primarily spoken in Sabah, Malaysia. It is the primary dialect spoken by the Kadazan people in the west coast of Sabah especially in the districts of Penampang, Papar and Membakut.
Datu Mustapha bin Datu Harun, or Tun Mustapha for short, was a Malaysian politician who served as the 3rd Chief Minister of Sabah from May 1967 to November 1975 and the 1st Yang Di-Pertua Negara from September 1963 to September 1965 and President of the United Sabah National Organisation (USNO). He is considered by some to be one of the founding leaders of Sabah and was an important party in the negotiations leading to the formation of Malaysia on 16 September 1963. He is sometimes known as the "Father of Independence of Sabah" and also the "Father of Development of Sabah".
Unduk Ngadau Kaamatan is a beauty pageant held annually during the Kaamatan cultural event in Sabah, Malaysia. The reigning Unduk Ngadau Kaamatan is Carol Abbey Gail Grimaldi of Papar who was crowned by Unduk Ngadau Kaamatan 2022, Frenerietta Sobitun of Sandakan, on 31 May 2023 at KDCA Hall, Penampang, Sabah.
Central Dusun, also known as Bunduliwan, is an Austronesian language and one of the more widespread languages spoken by the Dusun peoples of Sabah, Malaysia.
The Dusunic languages are a group of languages spoken by the Bisaya and Dusun, and related peoples in the Malaysian province of Sabah on Borneo.
The Sabahan languages are a group of Austronesian languages centered on the Bornean province of Sabah.
George Cathcart Woolley was a British colonial administrator in North Borneo in the early part on the twentieth century. Woolley was also an ethnographer and an ardent collector, and the Woolley Collections of photographs, diaries and other artefacts, bequeathed to the State Government of Sabah, formed the nucleus of Sabah Museum when it was founded in 1965.
A Bobohizan or Bobolian is a high priestess, a ritual specialist and a spirit medium in Kadazan-Dusun pagan rites. The office of Bobohizan or Bobolian, is also the chief preserver of Momolianism, i.e. the philosophy and way of life of the Kadazan-Dusun people.
The sumazau is a dance performed by the Kadazandusun from Penampang and adjacent areas in west coast Sabah. It is usually performed during Kaamatan. The dance involves male and female pairs who are dressed in traditional clothing. The rhythm of the dance is set by the beat of hanging gongs. It is performed by raising both arms to shoulder height and flapping them.
Momolianism is a belief system of the Kadazan-Dusun people of Sabah.
Sabah is the third most populous state in Malaysia, with a population of 3,418,785 according to the 2020 Malaysian census. It also has the highest non-citizen population, at 810,443. Although Malaysia is one of the least densely populated countries in Asia, Sabah is particularly sparsely populated. Most of the population is concentrated along coastal areas, with towns and urban centers seeing the most population growth.
The Tongod District is an administrative district in the Malaysian state of Sabah, part of the Sandakan Division which includes the districts of Beluran, Kinabatangan, Sandakan, Telupid and Tongod. The capital of the district is in Tongod Town.
The Penampang District is an administrative district in the Malaysian state of Sabah, part of the West Coast Division which includes the districts of Kota Belud, Kota Kinabalu, Papar, Penampang, Putatan, Ranau and Tuaran. The capital of the district is in Penampang Town.
The Putatan district is an administrative district in the Malaysian state of Sabah, part of the West Coast Division which includes the districts of Kota Belud, Kota Kinabalu, Papar, Penampang, Ranau and Tuaran. The capital of the district is in Putatan Town.
↑ Rutter, Owen (1929). The Pagans of North Borneo. London: Hutchinson and Co.
↑ Staal, J. (1923). "The Dusuns of North Borneo: Their Social Life". Anthropos. 18/19 (4/6): 958–977. JSTOR40444627.
↑ Yew, Chee Wei; Hoque, Mohd Zahirul; Pugh‐Kitingan, Jacqueline; etal. (2018). "Genetic Relatedness of Indigenous Ethnic Groups in Northern Borneo to Neighboring Populations from Southeast Asia, as Inferred from Genome‐Wide SNP Data". Annals of Human Genetics. 82 (4): 216–226. doi:10.1111/ahg.12246. PMID29521412. S2CID3780230.
Tangit, Trixie M. (2005). Planning Kadazandusun (Sabah, Malaysia): Labels, Identity, and Language (MA thesis). University of Hawaii at Manoa. hdl:10125/11691.
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