Southeast Asian haze

Last updated

Southeast Asian haze series
Satellite image of 2019 Southeast Asian haze in Borneo - 20190915.jpg
Haze in Borneo, 2019
History
1990s
2000s
2010s
Key topics
Responses
See also
Symbol category class.svg  Category

Most haze events have resulted from smoke from fires that occurred on peatlands in Sumatra and the Kalimantan region of Borneo island. [11] [12] Poor accountability and transparency of Indonesian agricultural companies, and limited political and economic incentives to hold companies to account, have been identified as key barriers to mitigating the issue. [13] [14]

Undisturbed humid tropical forests are considered to be very resistant to fire, experiencing rare fires only during extraordinary dry periods. [15]

A study published in 2005 concluded that there is no single dominant cause of fire in a particular site and there are wide differences in the causes of fires in different sites. The study identified the following direct and indirect causes of fire:

Fire as a tool in land clearing

Fire is the cheapest and fastest method to clear land in preparation for planting. Fire is used to clear the plant material left over from logging or old crops. Mechanically raking the plant material into long piles and letting them rot over time, is expensive and slow, and could harbour pests. Clearing land with machines and chemicals can cost up to US$200 per hectare while using fire costs US$5 per hectare. [17]

After a peat swamp forest has been cleared and drained, the peat soil is still unsuitable for agriculture, because peat soil is nutrient-poor and acidic (pH 3 - 4). To make the soil suitable for agriculture, the pH has to be neutralised and nutrients added. Pests and plant diseases also have to be removed. One method is to use chemicals such as limestone to neutralise the acidity, as well as fertilisers and pesticides. This method costs about Rupiah 30 - 40 million per hectare. Alternatively, fire is used to clear the plant material left over from logging. The fire kills pests and the resulting ash serves to fertilise the soil and neutralise the acidity. This method costs Rupiah 2 million per hectare. [18]

Land conflicts

In Indonesia, the Basic Forestry Law grants the Ministry of Forestry authority over all land classified as forests. Approximately 49% of the nation (909,070 square kilometres) is covered by actual forest, although the government classifies 69% of the land area (1,331,270 square kilometres) as forest. The land rights of traditional communities that live on land classified as forest cannot be registered and are generally unrecognised by the state. [19] Therefore, these communities do not really have the ability to enforce rules at the village level and exclude outsiders such as oil palm plantations, logging companies, residents of other villages, migrants, small-scale loggers or transmigrants. Competing claims in turn leads to land conflicts. [20] As the number of new, external actors increases, so does the likelihood that fire will be used as a weapon. [21]

Role of peat

Peat forms under waterlogged conditions in peat swamp forests such as this one in Raja Musa Forest Reserve, Selangor, Malaysia. A peat swamp forest in Selangor, Malaysia.JPG
Peat forms under waterlogged conditions in peat swamp forests such as this one in Raja Musa Forest Reserve, Selangor, Malaysia.

A peatland is an area where organic material such as leaves and twigs had accumulated naturally under waterlogged conditions in the last 10,000 years. This layer of organic material, known as peat, can be up to 20m deep. Indonesia has 265,500 km2 of peatland, which comprises 13.9% of its land area. Malaysia also has significant peatland in the Peninsular and Borneo, at 26,685 km2, covering 8.1% of its land area. [22]

Although originally a wetland ecosystem, much of the peatland in Southeast Asia have been drained for human activities such as agriculture, forestry and urban development. A report published in 2011 stated that more than 30% of peat swamp forests had been converted to agricultural land and a further 30% had been logged or degraded in the past 20 to 30 years. [23] Excessive drainage in peat results in the top layer of peat drying out. Due to its high carbon content, dry peat is extremely susceptible to burning, especially during the dry season.

Studies have shown that peat fires are a major contributor to the haze. In 2009, around 40% of all fires in Peninsular Malaysia, Borneo, Sumatra and Java were detected in peatlands, even though they cover only 10% of the land area studied. [15] The concentration of sulphur in rain falling over Singapore in 1997 correlated closely with the PM2.5 concentration, which can be attributed to the strong sulphur emission from peat fires. [24]

History

Southeast Asian haze has frequently reoccurred, with the severity and regions affected differing between seasons. [7] The issue has been recorded since 1972. [6] The 1997 Southeast Asian haze, caused by major forest fires in Indonesia, is thought to be the most severe on record, leading to dangerous pollution across most of Southeast Asia and affecting air quality as far as Sri Lanka. [7] The 2015 haze has also been highlighted as a particularly severe year. [7] In 2020, lockdowns and other social movement restrictions introduced due to the COVID-19 pandemic are thought to have reduced air pollution across the region. [25]

Effects

Haze related damages can be attributed to two sources: the haze causing fire and the haze itself. Each of the two factors can create significant disruption to people's daily lives and affect people's health. As a whole the recurring haze incidents affected regional economy and generated contention between governments of nations affected.

Direct fire damage

Haze fires can cause many kinds of damage that are local as well as transboundary. These include loss of direct and indirect forest benefits, timber, agricultural products and biodiversity. The fires also incur significant firefighting costs and carbon release to the atmosphere. [26]

Forest fires that contribute to haze are a part of deforestation in Indonesia and Malaysia, a major environmental issue. [27]

Economy

Some of the more direct damage caused by haze includes damage to regional tourism during haze periods, as flights have to be cancelled or delayed during particularly severe events. [7] The haze also leads to industrial production losses, airline and airport losses, damage to fisheries, and incurs the costs on cloud seeding. In addition, severe haze weather can lead to reduced crop productivity, accidents, evacuations, and the loss of confidence of foreign investors. [26]

The 1997 Southeast Asian haze is thought to have led to US$9bn in damages across ASEAN [10] whilst the 2015 haze cost Indonesia alone an estimated $16bn. [28]

Education

School closures have affected many parts of Malaysia, Singapore and Indonesia, sometimes for several weeks, due to hazardous air pollution. [29] [30]

Health

The health effects of haze depend on its severity as measured by the Pollutants Standards Index (PSI). Levels above 100 are classified as unhealthy and anything above 300 as hazardous. [28] There is also individual variation regarding the ability to tolerate air pollution. Most people would at most experience sneezing, running nose, eye irritation, dry throat and dry cough from the pollutants.

However, persons with medical conditions like asthma, chronic lung disease, chronic sinusitis and allergic skin conditions are likely to be more severely affected by the haze and they may experience more severe symptoms. Children and the elderly in general are more likely to be affected. [3] For some, symptoms may worsen with physical activity. [31] One study linked the haze to increased lung cancer diagnoses in Malaysia. [32]

The transboundary Southeast Asian haze has been linked to various cardiovascular conditions including acute ischemic stroke, [33] acute myocardial infarction [34] and cardiac arrest. [35] These studies found dose-dependent effect of PSI on the risk of development these conditions. There appears to be increased susceptibility amongst the elderly and those with history of heart disease and diabetes mellitus. [35] The risk is elevated for several days after exposure. PSI during periods of haze has also been correlated with all-cause mortality, [36] as well as respiratory-illnesses that presented to Emergency Departments and hospital admissions. [37]

The 1997 Southeast Asian haze is estimated to have directly led to 40,000 hospitalisations. [10] A 2016 study estimated the 2015 Southeast Asian haze may have caused around 100,000 deaths, most of which were in Indonesia; [38] the BBC estimated over 500,000 suffered from respiratory ailments in the same season. [28]

A population study found that individuals experienced mild psychological stress, which was associated with the perceived dangerous PSI level and the number of physical symptoms. [39]

Environment

In addition to the direct burning of rainforest, the haze also harms wildlife in the region such as orangutans, birds and amphibians, by impacting their health and reproduction. [40] It has also been suggested that haze affects marine ecosystems. [41]

The haze also contributes to greenhouse gas emissions, to an extent that Indonesia's national daily emissions increased tenfold and temporarily exceeded that of China and the United States during the 2015 haze season. Deforestation in Indonesia contributed to the country being the third highest emitter in the world as of 2013. [42] Commentators have suggested Indonesia's emissions during haze seasons undermine potential efforts to reach its pledged Nationally Determined Contribution under the Paris Agreement. [7]

Responses

Countries have responded to haze events with state of emergency declarations, cloud seeding to clear air and mobilising firefighting resources to areas being burned. The public have also been recommended to stay at home with the doors closed, and wear face masks when outside to minimise exposure to hazardous air quality. [10] [29] [30] During the severe 1997 haze caused primarily by forest fires in Indonesia, Malaysian Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad announced Operation Haze, sending Malaysian firefighters to Indonesia to support the response.[ citation needed ]

Singapore and Malaysia continuously monitor and report air pollution levels, using the Pollutant Standards Index and Air Pollution Index, respectively.

ASEAN introduced a Transboundary Haze agreement in 2002 following the severe international impact of the 1997 haze. [43] Indonesia became the last country in ASEAN to ratify it in 2014, despite its major contribution to the issue. [44]

Singapore introduced the Transboundary Haze Pollution Act 2014, that criminalises activities overseas that contribute to haze. Implementation of the domestic act to mitigate the regional issue has been challenging, and has affected Indonesia–Singapore relations. [45] [10] Singapore's investigations into individuals involved in the 2015 haze were accepted by Indonesia, on the condition that it did not violate Indonesian sovereignty. [46] Efforts have been made to introduce a similar domestic law in Malaysia, although the government shelved this in 2020. [47]

The Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil added "no peat" to its certification scheme in response to the link between palm oil and peat burning. [10]

Proposed solutions

Southeast Asian haze
Chinese name
Traditional Chinese 東南亞霾害
Simplified Chinese 东南亚霾害

The below solutions are proposed by Dennis et al. to mitigate the direct and indirect causes of fires which result in haze. [16]

Reduce the use of fire as a tool in land clearing

Indonesian law prohibits the use of fire to clear land for any agriculture but weak enforcement is a major issue. Many companies have also claimed that zero burning is impractical and uncompetitive given the lack of meaningful penalties for illegal burning.

Land-use allocations and tenure

Research shows that the most common cause of fire was related to competition and conflict about land tenure and land allocation. Land-use allocation decisions made by central government agencies often overlap with the concession boundaries of local jurisdictions and indigenous communities' territories. Regional reforms are needed to resolve the resource conflicts and they offer opportunities for the regional government to reconcile decisions with those of local and customary institutions. Regional reforms should also ensure that land and resource allocations and decisions at all levels are compatible with physical site characteristics, prominently taking fire risks into account. However, Indonesia's legacy of inaccurate maps, overlapping boundaries, and a lack of technical expertise at the Provincial and District levels will make this a difficult task.

Reduce forest degrading practices

Policies to improve land management and measures to restore ecological integrity to degraded natural forests are extremely important to reduce the incidence of repeated fires. Promoting community involvement in such rehabilitation efforts is critical for their success in reducing fire risks.

Capacity to prevent and suppress fires

The fires in Kalimantan and Sumatra highlight the need to develop fire management systems that address concerns of specific areas. Sufficient resources must be made available to improve fire management in regions that need them, while recognising the diverse needs of different regions and the people within them.

Technology such as remote sensing, digital mapping, and instantaneous communications can help to predict, detect, and respond to potential fire crises. However, such technology should be broadly accessible, widely used, and transparently controlled before they can be effective in improving fire management in remote regions.

Economic disincentives and incentives

In addition to effective criminal and monetary penalties for illegal burning and liability for fire damage, some policy analysts believe in the potential for economic policy reforms and market-based incentives. A combination of eco-labeling and international trade restrictions could reduce markets for commodities that posed high-fire risks in their production. The government could also provide fiscal advantages to support companies' investments in fire management.

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Smog</span> Smoke-like, fog-like air pollutions

Smog, or smoke fog, is a type of intense air pollution. The word "smog" was coined in the early 20th century, and is a portmanteau of the words smoke and fog to refer to smoky fog due to its opacity, and odor. The word was then intended to refer to what was sometimes known as pea soup fog, a familiar and serious problem in London from the 19th century to the mid-20th century, where it was commonly known as a London particular or London fog. This kind of visible air pollution is composed of nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxide, ozone, smoke and other particulates. Man-made smog is derived from coal combustion emissions, vehicular emissions, industrial emissions, forest and agricultural fires and photochemical reactions of these emissions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Haze</span> Dry particulates obscuring clarity of the sky

Haze is traditionally an atmospheric phenomenon in which dust, smoke, and other dry particulates suspended in air obscure visibility and the clarity of the sky. The World Meteorological Organization manual of codes includes a classification of particulates causing horizontal obscuration into categories of fog, ice fog, steam fog, mist, haze, smoke, volcanic ash, dust, sand, and snow. Sources for particles that cause haze include farming, traffic, industry, windy weather, volcanic activity and wildfires. Seen from afar and depending on the direction of view with respect to the Sun, haze may appear brownish or bluish, while mist tends to be bluish grey instead. Whereas haze often is considered a phenomenon occurring in dry air, mist formation is a phenomenon in saturated, humid air. However, haze particles may act as condensation nuclei that leads to the subsequent vapor condensation and formation of mist droplets; such forms of haze are known as "wet haze".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution</span> ASEAN environment agreement

The ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution is a legally binding environmental agreement signed in 2002 by the member states of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations to reduce haze pollution in Southeast Asia. The Agreement recognises that transboundary haze pollution which results from land and/or forest fires should be mitigated through concerted national efforts and international co-operation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Peat swamp forest</span> Tropical moist forests where waterlogged soil prevents dead leaves and wood from fully decomposing

Peat swamp forests are tropical moist forests where waterlogged soil prevents dead leaves and wood from fully decomposing. Over time, this creates a thick layer of acidic peat. Large areas of these forests are being logged at high rates.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Environmental issues in Indonesia</span>

Environmental issues in Indonesia are associated with the country's high population density and rapid industrialisation, and they are often given a lower priority due to high poverty levels, and an under-resourced governance.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Borneo peat swamp forests</span> Ecoregion in Borneo

The Borneo peat swamp forests ecoregion, within the tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests biome, are on the island of Borneo, which is divided between Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2006 Southeast Asian haze</span> Haze over the Southeast Asia region in mid-2006

The 2006 Southeast Asian haze was an air pollution event caused by continuous, uncontrolled burning from "slash and burn" cultivation in Indonesia, which affected several countries in the Southeast Asian region and beyond, including Malaysia, Singapore, southern Thailand, and as far away as Saipan; the effects of the haze may have even spread to South Korea. Local sources of industrial pollution also, inadvertently, contributed to increases in air toxicity ; notably at-risk areas included communities close to textile factories, fertilizer plants, meat-packing plants, industrialised dairy farms, shipping ports, and oil refineries. Air quality was lower, overall, for residents of more densely-populated cities. In the highly urban and industrialised Klang Valley of Malaysia, in particular, the surrounding elevated terrain acted as a natural retainer of polluted air, aggravating the situation as the haze set in.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1997 Southeast Asian haze</span> Haze over the Southeast Asia region in mid-1997

The 1997 Southeast Asian haze was an international air pollution disaster that occurred during the second half of 1997, its after-effects causing widespread atmospheric visibility and health problems within Southeast Asia. Considered the most severe Southeast Asian haze event of all time, the total costs of the 1997 haze are estimated at US$9 billion, due mainly to health care and disruption of air travel and business activities.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1997 Indonesian forest fires</span>

The 1997 group of forest fires in Indonesia that lasted well into 1998 were probably among the two or three, if not the largest, forest fires group in the last two centuries of recorded history.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2009 Southeast Asian haze</span> Haze over the Southeast Asia region in mid-2009

The 2009 Southeast Asian haze was an episode of large scale air pollution primarily caused by slash and burn practices used to clear land for agricultural purposes in Sumatra, Indonesia. It affected the areas surrounding the Straits of Malacca which besides Indonesia include Malaysia and Singapore.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Air pollution in Malaysia</span>

Air pollution has been an ongoing problem in many countries in the Southeast Asia region, and Malaysia is one of the worst affected. Haze has been a major issue for the country, driven by slash and burn practices by farmers and peat fires blown by the wind from Indonesia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Operation Haze</span>

Operation Haze is the biggest cross-border firefighting mission in history that involved teams of Malaysian firefighters going across to Indonesia to assist with putting out major fires that were causing severe haze across Southeast Asia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2013 Southeast Asian haze</span> Haze over the Southeast Asia region in mid-2013

The 2013 Southeast Asian haze was a haze crisis that affected several countries in Southeast Asia, including Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore and Southern Thailand, mainly during June and July 2013. The haze period was caused by large-scale burning in many parts of Sumatra and Borneo. Satellite imagery from NASA's Terra and Aqua satellites showed that the haze was mainly due to smoke from fires burning in Riau province, Indonesia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Palm oil production in Indonesia</span>

Palm oil production is important to the economy of Indonesia as the country is the world's biggest producer and consumer of the commodity, providing about half of the world's supply. In 2016, Indonesia produced over 34.6 million metric tons of palm oil, and exported 25.1 million metric tons of it. Oil palm plantations stretch across at least 12 million hectares. There are several different types of plantations, including small, privately owned plantations, and larger, state-owned plantations. There are a variety of health, environmental, and societal impacts that result from the production of palm oil in Indonesia. A recent publication by the NGO Rainforest Action Network (RAN) indicates that the use of palm oil by some of the biggest chocolate and snacks' producers is increasing this problem.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2015 Southeast Asian haze</span> Haze over the Southeast Asia region in mid-2015

The 2015 Southeast Asian haze was an air pollution crisis affecting several countries in Southeast Asia, including Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, southern Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodia and the Philippines.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Transboundary Haze Pollution Act 2014</span> Statute of the Parliament of Singapore

The Transboundary Haze Pollution Act 2014 (THPA) is a statute of the Parliament of Singapore that criminalizes conduct which causes or contributes to haze pollution in Singapore, and to provide for related matters such as deterrence. The law is designed specifically to allow legal in suing companies for environmental pollution.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2016 Southeast Asian haze</span> Haze over the Southeast Asia region in mid-2016

The 2016 Southeast Asian Haze was a transnational haze crisis which is a recurring problem with transboundary air pollution brought on by fires. The 2016 haze that took place affected several countries in Southeast Asia, including Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore. It brought negative effects towards the environment and brought an impact on people's health and the economy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">People's Movement to Stop Haze</span> Singaporean non-governmental organisation

People's Movement to Stop Haze (PM.Haze) is a non-governmental organisation based in Singapore. It was founded in 2014 in response to the 2013 Southeast Asian haze, which has been recognised as one of the most serious haze episodes in over 16 years. PM.Haze started its work with an investigative research project to fire-prone areas in Riau Province, Indonesia and identified peatland degradation due to mismanagement of concession lands by irresponsible companies as the fundamental cause of the fires in the areas and the resulting transboundary haze pollution. In 2016, it became registered as a society. In 2017, it underwent a rebranding exercise and adopted a new logo to symbolise a constant flow for fresh, clean air with an arrow pointed upward to represent constructive action towards this. PM.Haze was mentioned by Minister for the Environment and Water Resources Masagos Zulkifli as he delivered Singapore's national statement at the United Nations Environment Assembly in Nairobi in December 2017.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2010 Southeast Asian haze</span> Haze over the Southeast Asia region in mid-2010

The 2010 Southeast Asian haze was an air pollution crisis which affected many Southeast Asia countries such as Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore during the month of October in 2010.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2019 Southeast Asian haze</span> Haze over the Southeast Asia region in mid-2019

A trans-national air pollution crisis affected several countries in Southeast Asia from February to September 2019, including Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam.

References

  1. ↑ Karthik, K R G (10 August 2017). "Understanding the Southeast Asian haze". Environmental Research . 12 (8): 084018. Bibcode:2017ERL....12h4018G. doi: 10.1088/1748-9326/aa75d5 . hdl: 10356/107014 .
  2. ↑ "Regional Haze Action Plan". ASEAN.org. Haze Action Online. Archived from the original on 5 December 2013. Retrieved 23 February 2014.
  3. 1 2 3 Ramakreshnan, Logaraj; Aghamohammadi, Nasrin; Fong, Chng Saun; Awang, Bulgiba; Ahmad Zaki, Rafdzah; Wong, Li Ping; Sulaiman, Nik Meriam (5 December 2017). "Haze and health impacts in ASEAN countries: a systematic review". Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 25 (3): 2096–2111. doi:10.1007/s11356-017-0860-y. ISSN   1614-7499. PMID   29209970. S2CID   24828821.
  4. ↑ "Why is South-East Asia's annual haze so hard to deal with?". The Economist. 7 July 2013. Retrieved 28 June 2014.
  5. ↑ "What causes South East Asia's haze?". BBC. 16 September 2019. Retrieved 30 September 2019.
  6. 1 2 Lee, Min Kok (2 October 2015). "Haze in Singapore: A problem dating back 40 years". The Straits Times . Archived from the original on 2 October 2015. Retrieved 3 October 2015.
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Tacconi, Luca (6 July 2016). "Preventing fires and haze in Southeast Asia". Nature Climate Change. 6 (7): 640–643. Bibcode:2016NatCC...6..640T. doi:10.1038/nclimate3008. ISSN   1758-6798.
  8. ↑ Soeriaatmadja, Wahyudi (12 October 2015). "Minister blasts execs of firm that denied burning forest". The Straits Times . Archived from the original on 13 October 2015. Retrieved 13 October 2015.
  9. ↑ Fogarty, David (27 September 2015). "Lucrative illegal market for crop land a key cause of fires: Researcher". The Straits Times . Archived from the original on 28 September 2015. Retrieved 27 September 2015.
  10. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Mayberry, Kate. "Southeast Asia struggles to tackle haze despite long-term dangers". www.aljazeera.com. Retrieved 23 November 2021.
  11. ↑ Heil, A.; Goldammer, J. G. (1 August 2001). "Smoke-haze pollution: a review of the 1997 episode in Southeast Asia". Regional Environmental Change. 2 (1): 24–37. doi:10.1007/s101130100021. S2CID   153459591.
  12. ↑ "Guide to the #haze in infographics" . Retrieved 21 September 2015.
  13. ↑ Abdullah, Maizatulakma; Hamzah, Noradiva; Ali, Mohd Helmi; Tseng, Ming-Lang; Brander, Matthew (10 February 2020). "The Southeast Asian haze: The quality of environmental disclosures and firm performance". Journal of Cleaner Production. 246: 118958. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.118958. hdl: 20.500.11820/e9f8103d-e305-4b93-ad2e-ce6facb1019a . ISSN   0959-6526. S2CID   211447940.
  14. ↑ Furlow, Bryant (1 August 2013). "Political patronage helps fuel southeast Asia's seasonal haze". The Lancet Respiratory Medicine. 1 (6): 435. doi:10.1016/S2213-2600(13)70141-3. ISSN   2213-2600. PMID   24429233.
  15. 1 2 Miettinen, Jukka; Shi, Chenghua; Liew, Soo Chin (17 June 2010). "Influence of peatland and land cover distribution on fire regimes in insular Southeast Asia". Regional Environmental Change. 11 (1): 191–201. doi:10.1007/s10113-010-0131-7. S2CID   154102718.
  16. 1 2 Dennis, Rona A. (August 2005). "Fire, People and Pixels: Linking Social Science and Remote Sensing to Understand Underlying Causes and Impacts of Fires in Indonesia". Human Ecology. 33 (4): 465–504. doi:10.1007/s10745-005-5156-z. S2CID   55482888.
  17. ↑ Varkkey, Helena (2013). "Patronage politics, plantation fires and transboundary haze". Environmental Hazards. 12 (3–4): 200–217. doi:10.1080/17477891.2012.759524. S2CID   53464387.
  18. ↑ "Infographic (in Indonesian)". Tempo.co. 14 July 2003. Retrieved 17 May 2014.
  19. ↑ "Property Rights & Resource Governance, Indonesia" (PDF). USAID. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 January 2016.
  20. ↑ Carder, Reuben (29 May 2013). "Indonesian villagers think their land tenure is stronger than it actually is – study". CIFOR. Retrieved 15 May 2014.
  21. ↑ Colfer, Carol; Resosudarmo, Ida Aju Pradnja (2002). "Ten propositions to explain Kalimantan's fires" in Which way forward?. Washington, D.C.: Resources for the Future. p. 315. ISBN   978-1891853456.
  22. ↑ Joosten, Hans (2009). The Global Peatland CO2 Picture: peatland status and drainage related emissions in all countries of the world (PDF). Wetlands International. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 April 2014.
  23. ↑ Peatlands in Southeast Asia: A Profile. ASEAN Secretariat and Global Environment Centre. 2011.
  24. ↑ Orlic, I.; Wen, X.; Ng, T.H; Tang, S.M (1999). "Two years of aerosol pollution monitoring in Singapore: a review". Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section B: Beam Interactions with Materials and Atoms. 150 (1–4): 457–464. Bibcode:1999NIMPB.150..457O. doi:10.1016/S0168-583X(98)01053-2.
  25. ↑ Praveena, Sarva Mangala; Aris, Ahmad Zaharin (1 December 2021). "The impacts of COVID-19 on the environmental sustainability: a perspective from the Southeast Asian region". Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 28 (45): 63829–63836. doi:10.1007/s11356-020-11774-0. ISSN   1614-7499. PMC   7787621 . PMID   33410033.
  26. 1 2 Glover, David; Jessup, Timothy, eds. (2006). Indonesia's fires and haze the cost of catastrophe (Reprint 2006 with update. ed.). Ottawa: International Development Research Centre. ISBN   978-1-55250-332-4.
  27. ↑ "Indonesian wildfire disaster threatens virgin forest in Borneo". Mongabay Environmental News. 29 October 2015. Retrieved 23 November 2021.
  28. 1 2 3 "Indonesia haze: Why do forests keep burning?". BBC News. 16 September 2019.
  29. 1 2 "Hazardous haze chokes Southeast Asia". www.aljazeera.com. Retrieved 23 November 2021.
  30. 1 2 "Malaysia, Indonesia shut thousands of schools as haze worsens". www.aljazeera.com. Retrieved 23 November 2021.
  31. ↑ "Health Effects Of Haze". Ministry of Health Singapore. Archived from the original on 27 July 2013. Retrieved 11 April 2014.
  32. ↑ Hassan, A.; Latif, M. T.; Soo, C. I.; Faisal, A. H.; Roslina, A. M.; Andrea, Y. L. Ban; Hassan, T. (1 November 2017). "Short communication: Diagnosis of lung cancer increases during the annual southeast Asian haze periods". Lung Cancer. 113: 1–3. doi:10.1016/j.lungcan.2017.08.025. ISSN   0169-5002. PMID   29110834.
  33. ↑ Ho, Andrew F. W.; Zheng, Huili; De Silva, Deidre A.; Wah, Win; Earnest, Arul; Pang, Yee H.; Xie, Zhenjia; Pek, Pin P.; Liu, Nan (November 2018). "The Relationship Between Ambient Air Pollution and Acute Ischemic Stroke: A Time-Stratified Case-Crossover Study in a City-State With Seasonal Exposure to the Southeast Asian Haze Problem". Annals of Emergency Medicine. 72 (5): 591–601. doi:10.1016/j.annemergmed.2018.06.037. ISSN   1097-6760. PMID   30172448. S2CID   52144033.
  34. ↑ Ho, Andrew Fu Wah; Zheng, Huili; Earnest, Arul; Cheong, Kang Hao; Pek, Pin Pin; Seok, Jeon Young; Liu, Nan; Kwan, Yu Heng; Tan, Jack Wei Chieh (19 March 2019). "Time‐Stratified Case Crossover Study of the Association of Outdoor Ambient Air Pollution With the Risk of Acute Myocardial Infarction in the Context of Seasonal Exposure to the Southeast Asian Haze Problem". Journal of the American Heart Association. 8 (6): e011272. doi:10.1161/JAHA.118.011272. ISSN   2047-9980. PMC   6475051 . PMID   31112443.
  35. 1 2 Ho, Andrew Fu Wah; Wah, Win; Earnest, Arul; Ng, Yih Yng; Xie, Zhenjia; Shahidah, Nur; Yap, Susan; Pek, Pin Pin; Liu, Nan (15 November 2018). "Health impacts of the Southeast Asian haze problem - A time-stratified case crossover study of the relationship between ambient air pollution and sudden cardiac deaths in Singapore". International Journal of Cardiology. 271: 352–358. doi:10.1016/j.ijcard.2018.04.070. ISSN   1874-1754. PMID   30223374. S2CID   52282745.
  36. ↑ Ho; Zheng; Cheong; En; Pek; Zhao; Morgan; Earnest; Tan; Ng; Foo (20 December 2019). "The Relationship Between Air Pollution and All-Cause Mortality in Singapore". Atmosphere. 11 (1): 9. Bibcode:2019Atmos..11....9H. doi: 10.3390/atmos11010009 . ISSN   2073-4433.
  37. ↑ Chan, Sze Ling; Ho, Andrew Fw; Ding, Huicong; Liu, Nan; Earnest, Arul; Koh, Mariko S.; Chuah, Jolyn St; Lau, Zheng Yi; Tan, Kelvin Bryan; Zheng, Huili; Morgan, Geoffrey G. (February 2020). "Impact of Air Pollution and Trans-Boundary Haze on Nation-Wide Emergency Department Visits and Hospital Admissions in Singapore". Annals of the Academy of Medicine, Singapore. 49 (2): 78–87. doi: 10.47102/annals-acadmedsg.2019209 . ISSN   0304-4602. PMID   32246709.
  38. ↑ Wright, Stephen. "Study estimates 100,000 deaths from Indonesia haze". phys.org. Retrieved 23 November 2021.
  39. ↑ Ho, Roger C.; Zhang, Melvyn W.; Ho, Cyrus S.; Pan, Fang; Lu, Yanxia; Sharma, Vijay K. (19 March 2014). "Impact of 2013 south Asian haze crisis: study of physical and psychological symptoms and perceived dangerousness of pollution level". BMC Psychiatry. 14 (1): 81. doi: 10.1186/1471-244X-14-81 . ISSN   1471-244X. PMC   3995317 . PMID   24642046.
  40. ↑ "The impacts of haze on Southeast Asia's wildlife". Mongabay Environmental News. 19 November 2015. Retrieved 23 November 2021.
  41. ↑ Jaafar, Zeehan; Loh, Tse-Lynn (2014). "Linking land, air and sea: potential impacts of biomass burning and the resultant haze on marine ecosystems of Southeast Asia". Global Change Biology. 20 (9): 2701–2707. Bibcode:2014GCBio..20.2701J. doi: 10.1111/gcb.12539 . ISSN   1365-2486. PMID   24604729.
  42. ↑ Kwok, Yenni (30 July 2013). "The Southeast Asian Haze Is Back and Worse May Follow". Time. ISSN   0040-781X . Retrieved 24 November 2021.
  43. ↑ Tacconi, Luca; Jotzo, Frank; Grafton, R. Quentin (1 March 2008). "Local causes, regional co-operation and global financing for environmental problems: the case of Southeast Asian Haze pollution". International Environmental Agreements: Politics, Law and Economics. 8 (1): 1–16. doi:10.1007/s10784-007-9057-z. ISSN   1573-1553. S2CID   13243670.
  44. ↑ "Indonesia finally ratifies Asean agreement on transboundary haze". 24 September 2015. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 23 November 2021.
  45. ↑ Lee, Janice Ser Huay; Jaafar, Zeehan; Tan, Alan Khee Jin; Carrasco, Luis R.; Ewing, J. Jackson; Bickford, David P.; Webb, Edward L.; Koh, Lian Pin (1 January 2016). "Toward clearer skies: Challenges in regulating transboundary haze in Southeast Asia". Environmental Science & Policy. 55: 87–95. doi:10.1016/j.envsci.2015.09.008. ISSN   1462-9011.
  46. ↑ "Indonesia draws the line on Singapore's 2015 haze investigation". The Jakarta Post. Retrieved 23 November 2021.
  47. ↑ "Domestic Transboundary Haze Pollution Act urgently needed". The Star. Retrieved 23 November 2021.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.