A state of emergency is a situation in which a government is empowered to put through policies that it would normally not be permitted to do, for the safety and protection of its citizens. A government can declare such a state before, during, or after a natural disaster, civil unrest, armed conflict, medical pandemic or epidemic or other biosecurity risk.
Under international law, rights and freedoms may be suspended during a state of emergency, depending on the severity of the emergency and a government's policies.[1]
Use and viewpoints
Democracies use states of emergency to manage a range of situations from extreme weather events to public order situations. Dictatorial regimes often declare a state of emergency that is prolonged indefinitely for the life of the regime, or for extended periods of time so that derogations can be used to override human rights of their citizens usually protected by the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR).[2] In some situations, martial law is also declared, allowing the military greater authority to act. In other situations, emergency is not declared and de facto measures taken or decree-law adopted by the government. Nicole Questiaux (France) and Leandro Despouy (Argentina), two consecutive United Nations Special Rapporteurs, have recommended to the international community to adopt the following "principles" to be observed during a state or de facto situation of emergency: Principles of Legality, Proclamation, Notification, Time Limitation, Exceptional Threat, Proportionality, Non-Discrimination, Compatibility, Concordance and Complementarity of the Various Norms of International Law (cf. "Question of Human Rights and State of Emergency", E/CN.4/Sub.2/1997/19, at Chapter II; see also état d'exception).
In many democratic states there are a selection of legal definitions for specific states of emergency,[6] when the constitution of the State is partially in abeyance depending on the nature of the perceived threat to the general public. In order of severity these may include:
The state of emergency can be abused by being invoked. An example would be to allow a state to suppress internal opposition without having to respect human rights. An example was the August 1991 attempted coup in the Soviet Union (USSR) where the coup leaders invoked a state of emergency; the failure of the coup led to the dissolution of the Soviet Union.
Derogations by states having ratified or acceded to binding international agreements such as the ICCPR, the American and European Conventions on Human Rights and the International Labor Conventions are monitored by independent expert committees, regional Courts and other State Parties.[7]
Law in selected countries
Argentina
The Constitution of Argentina, which has been amended several times, has always allowed for a state of emergency (literally estado de sitio, "state of siege"), to be declared if the constitution or the authorities it creates are endangered by internal unrest or foreign attack. This provision was much abused during dictatorships, with long-lasting states of siege giving the government a free hand to suppress opposition.[8] The American Convention on Human Rights (Pacto de San José de Costa Rica), adopted in 1969 but ratified by Argentina only in 1984 immediately after the end of the National Reorganization Process, restricts abuse of the state of emergency by requiring any signatory nation declaring such a state to inform the other signatories of its circumstances and duration, and what rights are affected.
State-of-emergency legislation differs in each state of Australia. With regard to emergency management, regions (usually on a local government area basis) that have been affected by a natural disaster are the responsibility of the state, until that state declares a State of Emergency where access to the Federal Emergency Fund becomes available to help respond to and recover from natural disasters. A State of Emergency does not apply to the whole state, but rather districts or shires, where essential services may have been disrupted.[9]
On 18 March 2020,[10] a nationwide human biosecurity emergency was declared in Australia owing to the risks to human health posed by the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic, after the National Security Committee met the previous day. The Biosecurity Act 2015[11] specifies that the governor-general of Australia may declare such an emergency if the Health Minister is satisfied that "a listed human disease is posing a severe and immediate threat, or is causing harm, to human health on a nationally significant scale". This gives the Minister sweeping powers, including imposing restrictions or preventing the movement of people and goods between specified places, and evacuations.[12] The Biosecurity (Human Biosecurity Emergency) (Human Coronavirus with Pandemic Potential) Declaration 2020 was declared by the Governor-General, David Hurley, under Section 475 of the Act.[10]
New South Wales
In New South Wales, the NSW Premier can, pursuant to the State Emergency and Rescue Management Act 1989, declare a state of emergency due to an actual or imminent occurrence (such as fire, flood, storm, earthquake, explosion, terrorist act, accident, epidemic or warlike action) which endangers, or threatens to endanger, the safety or health of persons or animals in the State, or destroys or damages, or threatens to destroy or damage, property in the State, or causes a failure of, or a significant disruption to, an essential service or infrastructure.[13] The Premier declared a state of emergency on 11 November 2019 in response to the 2019–2020 New South Wales bushfires. It was the fifth time that a state of emergency had been declared in that state since 2006 and it lasted for seven days. Subsequent declarations were made on 19 December for a further seven days, and again on 2 January 2020. In NSW, the 2019–2020 bushfire season resulted in 26 deaths, destroyed 2,448 homes, and burnt 5.5million hectares (14million acres).[14][15]
Victoria
In Victoria, the Victorian Premier can declare a state of emergency under the Public Safety Preservation Act 1958[16] if there is a threat to employment, safety or public order.[17] A declared state of emergency allows the Premier to immediately make any desired regulations to secure public order and safety. The declaration expires after 30 days, and a resolution of either the upper or lower House of Parliament may revoke it earlier. However, these regulations expire if Parliament does not agree to continue them within seven days.
The Premier (or a delegate) may operate or prohibit operation of any essential service, such as transport, fuel, power, water or gas, under the Essential Services Act 1958.[18][19]
If there is an emergency which the Premier, after considering the advice of the relevant Minister and the Emergency Management Commissioner, is satisfied constitutes or is likely to constitute a significant and widespread danger to life or property in Victoria, the Premier, pursuant to the Emergency Management Act 1986, may declare a state of disaster to exist in the whole or in any part or parts of the State.[20] The state of disaster addresses matters beyond public health issues and is intended to deal with emergencies such as natural disasters, explosions, terrorism or sieges, and it can also be used to deal with 'a plague or an epidemic'.[21]
The Public Health and Wellbeing Act 2008 gives the Chief Health Officer extensive powers to take action 'to investigate, eliminate or reduce public health risks', including power to detain, restrict the movement of or prevent entry of any person in the emergency area, "and to give any other direction that the authorized officer considers is reasonably necessary to protect public health."[22]
Brazil
The current constitution of Brazil[23] allows the president to declare two states, in order to "preserve or establish peace and order, threatened by grave and imminent institutional instability or severe natural disasters".
The first, and less severe state is the state of defense (estado de defesa, in Portuguese), while a more severe form is the state of siege (estado de sítio).
In a state of defense, the federal government can occupy and use any public building or demand any service as it sees fit. It may suppress secrecy of correspondence and freedom of assembly as necessary, as long as it specifies a defined region and time period.
If president finds the state of defense insufficient, it might decree a state of siege. This state further reduces civil liberties, removing freedom of movement, allowing for search without consent or warrant, and seizure of any assets the government deems necessary. The government may also intervene and direct the function of any company.
To balance this far-reaching powers, the National Congress of Brazil has to convene and approve the state in ten days or it is automatically cancelled. Further, the state of siege has to be revised by the congress every 30 days, unless it was raised as response to a war, in which case the government is free to set it to last until the end of the war.
The federal government of Canada can use the Emergencies Act to invoke a state of emergency. A national state of emergency automatically expires after 90 days, unless extended by the Governor-in-Council.[24] There are different levels of emergencies: Public Welfare Emergency, Public Order Emergency, International Emergency, and War Emergency.[25]
Under the current Emergency Act a state of emergency can also be declared by provincial, territorial, and municipal governments.[26] In addition Canada's federal government and any of its provincial governments can suspend, for five years at a time, Charter rights to fundamental freedoms in section 2, to legal rights in sections 7 through 14, and to equality rights in section 15 by legislation which invokes the notwithstanding clause, section 33, and therefore emergency powers can effectively be created even without using the Emergency Act.
Provincial governments can also invoke states of emergency, and have done to respond to at least 12 incidents during the 21st century.[citation needed]
Egyptians lived under an Emergency Law (Law No. 162 of 1958)[30] from 1967 to 2012, except for an 18-month break in 1980 and 1981. The emergency was imposed during the Six-Day War, and reimposed following the assassination of President Anwar Sadat. The law was continuously extended every three years since 1981. Under the law, police powers were extended, constitutional rights suspended and censorship was legalized.[31] The law sharply circumscribed any non-governmental political activity: street demonstrations, non-approved political organizations, and unregistered financial donations were formally banned. Some 17,000 people were detained under the law, and estimates of political prisoners run as high as 30,000.[32] The emergency rule expired on 31 May 2012, and was put back in place in January 2013.[33][34]
Following the 2013 coup d'état, the Egyptian interim president announced a one-month state of emergency across the country on 14 August 2013 and ordered the Egyptian Armed Forces to help the Interior Ministry enforce security.[35] The announcement made on state TV followed deadly countrywide clashes between supporters of deposed President Mohamed Morsi and the security forces.[36]
A six-month state of emergency was issued by the Ethiopian government on 2 November 2021, following the rebel advance during the Tigray war, which went into effect 5 November 2021.
Three main provisions concern various kind of "state of emergency" in France: Article 16 of the Constitution of 1958 allows, in time of crisis, "extraordinary powers" to the president. Article 36 of the same constitution regulates "state of siege" (état de siège). Finally, the Act of 3 April 1955 allows the proclamation, by the Council of Ministers, of the "state of emergency" (état d'urgence).[37] The distinction between article 16 and the 1955 Act concerns mainly the distribution of powers: whereas in article 16, the executive power basically suspend the regular procedures of the Republic, the 1955 Act permits a twelve-day state of emergency, after which a new law extending the emergency must be voted by the Parliament of France. These dispositions have been used at various times: three times during the Algerian War (in 1955, 1958 and 1961), in 1984 during violent pro-independence revolts in New Caledonia, during the 2005 riots, and following the 2015 Paris terrorist attacks.Since Then,9 Years Later on 2024 May 15 deadly riots have prompted France to declare a state emergency in New Caledonia.
Germany
The Weimar Constitution (1919–1933)[38] allowed states of emergency under Article 48 to deal with rebellions. Article 48 was often invoked during the 14-year life of the Weimar Republic, sometimes for no reason other than to allow the government to act when it was unable to obtain a parliamentary majority.
In the postwar Federal Republic of Germany the Emergency Acts state that some of the basic constitutional rights of the Basic Law may be limited in case of a State of Defence, a state of tension, or an internal state of emergency or disaster (catastrophe). These amendments to the constitution were passed on 30 May 1968, despite fierce opposition by the so-called extra-parliamentary opposition (see German student movement for details).
The Chief Executive of Hong Kong along with the Executive Council can prohibit public gatherings, issue curfew orders, prohibit the movement of vessels or aircraft, delegate authority, and other listed powers, under "Cap. 245 Public Order Ordinance".[43]
Although the People's Liberation Army Hong Kong Garrison may not interfere in internal Hong Kong affairs, the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region Government may invoke Article 14 of the Hong Kong Basic Law and request permission of the Central People's Government to have the garrison assist in "maintenance of public order or disaster relief".[41]
Since 1997, a State of Emergency has never been declared. However, emergency measures have been used in varying degrees over the years during British rule and after the establishment of the Special Administrative Region. A few notable mentions are as follow:
On 4 October 2019, Carrie Lam, the Chief Executive of Hong Kong S.A.R., invoked Section 2(1) of the Emergency Regulations Ordinance[44] implemented since 1922 and last amended by the Legislative Council in 1999, which allow the government to implement the new, Prohibition on Face Covering Regulation.[45] The new regulation forbid public assembly participants from wearing masks or obscure faces during such events without reasonable excuses. The permitted excuses are: pre-existing medical or health reasons, religious reasons, and if the person uses the face covering for physical safety while performing an activity connected with their profession or employment. Any person defying the new regulation face possible criminal prosecution. The government's motive in doing so is to end months of social unrest and riots, however, did not declare a "State of Emergency". The new regulation took effect at 00:00 HKT on 5 October 2019.[46] Offenders risked a maximum of one-year imprisonment or a fine of HK$25,000 (US$3,200).[47]
The High Court of Hong Kong denied an application for a judicial injunction of the anti-mask law, on the same night shortly before the new regulation took effect. A subsequent attempt by pro-democrats to halt the new regulation also failed, however, the court recommended a judicial review at a later date.[48]
On 18 November 2019, the High Court ruled the "Cap. 241 Emergency Regulations Ordinance" is "incompatible with the Basic Law", however, the court "leaves open the question of the constitutionality of the ERO insofar as it relates to any occasion of emergency." The court also held the ordinance meets the "prescribed by law" requirement. However, the court deemed s3(1)(b), (c), (d) and s5 of the regulation do not meet the proportionality test as they impose restrictions on fundamental rights that goes beyond what is necessary in furthering its intended goals.[49]
On 22 November 2019, the High Court made the following remark:
Nevertheless, we recognize that our Judgment is only a judgment at first instance, and will soon be subject to an appeal to the Court of Appeal. In view of the great public importance of the issues raised in this case, and the highly exceptional circumstances that Hong Kong is currently facing, we consider it right that we should grant a short interim suspension order so that the respondents may have an opportunity to apply to the Court of Appeal, if so advised, for such interim relief as may be appropriate. Accordingly, we shall grant an interim temporary suspension order to postpone the coming into operation of the declarations of invalidity for a period of 7 days up to the end of 29 November 2019, with liberty to apply.[50][51]
On 26 November 2019, the High Court announced hearing for the government appeal against the judgement is on 9 January 2020.[52]
On 27 November 2019, the Court of Appeal extended the interim suspension of the judgment until 10 December 2019.[53][54]
On 10 December 2019, the Court of Appeal refused to suspend the "unconstitutional" ruling by the Court of First Instance on the anti-mask regulation. As scheduled, a full hearing will commence on 9 January 2020.[55][56][57]
Hungary
This section needs to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.(April 2020)
According to the Hungarian Constitution, the National Assembly of Hungary can declare state of emergency in case of armed rebellion or natural or industrial disaster. It expires after 30 days, but can be extended. Most civil rights can be suspended, but basic human rights (such as the right to life, the ban of torture, and freedom of religion) cannot.
During state of emergency, the Parliament cannot be disbanded.
In India, a state of emergency was declared twice:
Between 26 October 1962 to 10 January 1968 during the Sino-Indian War—the security of India having been declared "threatened by external aggression".[58]
Between 3 December 1971 to 21 March 1977 originally proclaimed during the Indo-Pakistani War, and later extended on 25 June 1975, along with the third proclamation—the security of India having been declared "threatened by external aggression" and by "internal disturbances".
The first internal State of Emergency, popularly known as the Emergency, was declared by the then President Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed on advice of then Prime Minister, Indira Gandhi. The provisions of the Constitution allows the Prime Minister to rule by decree.
Ireland
In Ireland declaring a state of "national emergency" involves Article 28.3.3° of the 1937 Constitution of Ireland, which states that:[59]
Nothing in this Constitution [...] shall be invoked to invalidate any law enacted by the Oireachtas [parliament] which is expressed to be for the purpose of securing the public safety and the preservation of the State in time of war or armed rebellion, or to nullify any act done or purporting to be done in time of war or armed rebellion in pursuance of any such law.
The first amendment was rushed through the Oireachtas after the outbreak of the Second World War, in which the state remained neutral. Immediately after, the required resolution was passed, in turn enabling the passage of the Emergency Powers Act 1939 (EPA), which granted the government and its ministers sweeping powers to issue statutory orders termed "Emergency Powers Orders" (EPOs).[65][66] (The period in Ireland was and is referred to as "The Emergency".) The EPA expired in 1946, although some EPOs were continued under the Supplies and Services (Temporary Provisions) Act 1946 until as late as 1957.[67][68]Rationing continued until 1951.
The Offences against the State Act does not require a state of emergency under Article 28.3.3°.[73][74] Part V of the Act, which provides for a non-jury Special Criminal Court (SCC), is permitted under Article 38.3.1°.[75][76] Part V is activated by a declaration from the government that it is "necessary to secure the preservation of public peace and order", and it can be rescinded by vote of Dáil Éireann. Provision for internment is similarly activated and rescinded (originally by Part VI of the 1939 act, later by Part II of a 1940 amending act).[73][77][78] Parts V and VI were both activated during the Second World War and the IRA's late 1950s Border Campaign; Part V has been continually active since 1972.[79][80]
Several official reviews of the Constitution and the Offences Against the State Acts have recommended a time limit within which the operation of Article 28.3.3° or Article 38.3.1° must either be explicitly renewed by resolution or else lapse.[81][82][83]
In Italy, the state of emergency planned by the legal system is implemented by the Council of Ministers, without the need of a parliamentary vote, due to the Law n. 225 of 1992 on Civil Protection.[84] Moreover, the Article 120 of the Constitution provides that the government can exercise "substitute powers" of local authorities in typically situations: to protect the legal or economic unity of the state, in case of violation of supranational laws and to face a serious danger for safety and public safety.[85] For other emergency, such as a war, a parliamentary vote is required to give extraordinary powers to the government.[86]
The Parliament of Italy can also give extraordinary powers to the government in case of health emergency, as it occurred during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, when the Parliament approved a state of emergency from 31 January 2020 to 31 December 2021, thanks to what the government can implement administrative acts, without the approval of the Parliament.[87]
In Malaysia, if the Yang di-Pertuan Agong (Monarch) is satisfied that a grave emergency exists whereby the security, or the economic life, or public order in the Federation or any part thereof is threatened, he may issue a Proclamation of Emergency making therein a declaration to that effect.[88]
When a race riot broke out on 13 May 1969, a state of emergency was declared.
Amid severe haze on 11 August 2005, a state of emergency was announced for the world's 13th-largest port, Port Klang and the district of Kuala Selangor after air pollution there reached dangerous levels (defined as a value greater than 500 on the Air Pollution Index or API).
Thierry Rommel, the European Commission's envoy to Malaysia, told Reuters by telephone on 13 November 2007 (the last day of his mission) that, "Today, this country still lives under (a state of) emergency."[89] Although not officially proclaimed as a state of emergency, the Emergency Ordinance and the Internal Security Act had allowed detention for years without trial.
On 23 June 2013, a state of emergency was declared by government for Muar and Ledang, Johor as severe Southeast Asian haze that pushed the air pollution index to above 750. This was the first time in years that air quality had dipped to a hazardous level with conditions worsening as dry weather persisted and fires raged in Sumatra.[90]
A state of emergency was declared on 26 December 2004, following the 2004 Indian Ocean Earthquake and Tsunami. The resulting tsunamis caused extensive damage to the country's infrastructure, cutting off communications from large swathes of the nation, decimating islands and forcing the closure of a number of resorts due to the damage.
Namibia last declared a state of emergency due to an ongoing drought in 2016.[94]
New Zealand
The Civil Defence Emergency Management Act 2002 gives the New Zealand Government and local-body councils the power to issue a state of emergency, either over the entire country or within a specific region.[95] This may suspend ordinary work and essential services if need be. States of emergency in New Zealand expire on the commencement of the seventh day after the date of a declaration unless extended. However, the Minister of Civil Defence or a local mayor may lift a state of emergency after an initial review of a region's status.
On 25 March 2020 at 12.21 pm, the Minister for Civil Defense Peeni Henare declared a state of national emergency in response to the total cases of COVID-19 reaching 205. Combined with an epidemic notice issued under the Epidemic Preparedness Act 2006, the state of emergency declaration enabled authorities to close most premises in New Zealand and enforce a nationwide lockdown. This also provided access to special powers to combat COVID-19, including powers of requisition and closing roads and restricting movement. Director of Civil Defence Emergency Management Sarah Stuart-Black said these powers sat alongside other powers to ensure essential services could stay up and running.[99] The state of national emergency was renewed four times, to last for a total of five weeks.[100]
On 14 February 2023 at 8:43 am, the Minister for Civil Defense Kieran McAnulty declared a state of national emergency in response to Cyclone Gabrielle reaching New Zealand and causing flooding and evacuations.[101][102]
Nigeria
In Nigeria, a state of emergency is usually declared in times of great civil unrest. In recent years, it has specifically been implemented in reaction to terrorist attacks on Nigerians by the Islamic terrorist group Boko Haram.
On 14 May 2013, Goodluck Jonathan declared a state of emergency for the entire northeastern states of Borno, Yobe and Adamawa.[103] A more limited state of emergency had been declared on 31 December 2011 in parts of Yobe, Borno, Plateau and Niger states. This earlier declaration included the temporary shutdown of the international borders in those regions.[104]
State of calamity: Last national declaration was in 2020–21 due to the COVID-19 pandemic in the Philippines and later, the outbreak of African swine fever virus in several provinces and regions of the country. Local governments are also permitted to declare local states of calamity in their areas hit by natural and man-madedisasters.
Portugal
Letter from the Portuguese President, Marcelo Rebelo de Sousa, to the Speaker of the Assembly of the Republic, Eduardo Ferro Rodrigues, requesting Parliament for authorisation under the terms of the Constitution, for a declaration of the state of emergency in the context of the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic
The current Constitution of Portugal empowers the President of the Republic[105] to declare a state of siege (Portuguese: estado de sítio) or a state of emergency (Portuguese: estado de emergência) in part or the entirety of the Portuguese territory, only in cases of actual or imminent aggression by foreign forces, serious threats to or disturbances of the democratic constitutional order, or public disasters.[106]
Such declarations allow the entities that exercise sovereignty from suspending the exercise of some of the constitutionally defined rights, freedoms and guarantees, so that the public authorities can take the appropriate and strictly necessary measures for the prompt restoration of constitutional normality; the Constitution, however, sets a temporal limit for these states of emergency (no more than fifteen days, even though renewal is possible) and forbids any suspension of the right to life, to personal integrity, to personal identity, to civil capacity and citizenship, the non-retroactivity of criminal law, the right to a fair trial, or the freedom of conscience and religion.[106] They also may not affect the constitutionally-defined competences and mode of operation of the entities that exercise sovereignty. The Assembly of the Republic may not be dissolved while a state of siege or a state of emergency is in force,[107] nor can the Constitution itself be subject to amendment.[108]
Before declaring a state of siege or a state of emergency, the President is required to consult with the Government and request authorisation to do so from the Assembly of the Republic.[109]
Within the remit of the basic law of civil protection services (Portuguese: Lei de Bases da Protecção Civil), the prime minister can, through a Resolution of the Council of Ministers and without the need of parliamentary approval or presidential promulgation, decree a situation of calamity (Portuguese: situação de calamidade). Lesser exceptional statuses, the situation of contingency (Portuguese: situação de contingência) and the situation of alert (Portuguese: situação de alerta) in descending order of importance, can also be set in motion by other civil protection authorities or Mayors.[111] These three situations allow for some extraordinary measures and special restrictions, but not the suspension of constitutional rights and freedoms.
Poland
In Poland, the institution of the state of emergency was absorbed by the institution of martial law in the years 1952–1983 in the constitutional regulations. According to the provisions of the Constitution of 1997 (Articles 228 et seq.), A state of emergency may be introduced by the president at the request of the Council of Ministers for a specified period of time, but not longer than 90 days, in part or throughout the territory of the country, if the security of the state, the security of citizens or public order has been threatened. The President may extend this state only once (for a period not longer than 60 days) with the consent of the Sejm. During the state of emergency and within 90 days from its end, the Constitution and electoral regulations may not be changed, and the Sejm may not be dissolved; there are also no national elections or referendums. In the event of the expiry of the term of office of the President, the Sejm and the Senate, or local self-government bodies, they are appropriately extended.
In Romania, there are two types of states of emergency, each designed for a different type of situation.[citation needed]
State of alert (Stare de alertă in Romanian): Non-military, can be enforced by a prefect. Roadblocks are enforced. Any utilitarian vehicle or equipment can be temporarily used by the state, without any restriction. Evacuation is not mandatory, unless extreme circumstances apply. Only EMS, Police and firefighting personnel are required to intervene. This situation can be enforced in case of natural disasters or civil unrest.
State of emergency (stare de urgentă in Romanian): Can only be enforced by the President of Romania with approval from Parliament. The military becomes the upper form of control in the country (under the rule of the president).[citation needed] The civilian population is subject to strict regulations, imposed by the type of emergency.[citation needed] All private and public non-crucial activities are suspended.[citation needed]Essential services might be disrupted. This situation can be enforced in case of extreme circumstances, such as a war.
Special zone of public safety (Zonă specială de siguranță publică in Romanian): Administrative, can be enforced by local police. This implies installation of road check-points and higher numbers in police and gendarmes/ riot police presence, patrolling the area. There is also a ban that restricts the right to travel for people in the area; any vehicle and individual transiting the zone are subject to screening.[112][113]
The last instance in which the special zone of public safety was enforced was on 8 December 2013, in Pungești, Vaslui following civil unrest in Pungești from Chevron's plans to begin exploring shale-gas in the village.[114] According to police officials, the special security zone will be maintained as long as there is conflict in the area that poses a threat to Chevron's operations.[112] This special security zone has faced domestic and international criticism for alleged human-rights abuses.
Sierra Leone declared, on 7 February 2019, a State of Emergency due to ongoing rape and sexual violence in the country.[115] On 24 March 2020, a 12-month state of emergency was declared by (Rtd) Brigadier Julius Madaa Bio due to the COVID-19 pandemic.[116]
States of emergency in South Africa are governed by section 37 of the Constitution and by the State of Emergency Act, 1997. The president may declare a state of emergency only when "the life of the nation is threatened by war, invasion, general insurrection, disorder, natural disaster or other public emergency" and if the ordinary laws and government powers are not sufficient to restore peace and order. The declaration is made by proclamation in the Government Gazette and may only apply from the time of publication, not retroactively. It can only continue for 21 days unless the National Assembly grants an extension, which may be for at most three months at a time. The High Courts have the power, subject to confirmation by the Constitutional Court, to determine the validity of the declaration of a state of emergency.[117]
During a state of emergency the President of South Africa has the power to make emergency regulations "necessary or expedient" to restore peace and order and end the emergency. This power can be delegated to other authorities. Emergency measures can violate the Bill of Rights, but only to a limited extent. Some rights are inviolable, including amongst others the rights to life and to human dignity; the prohibition of discrimination on the grounds of race, sex or religion; the prohibition of torture or inhumane punishment; and the right of accused people to a fair trial. Any violation of a constitutional right must be strictly required by the emergency. Emergency measures may not indemnify the government or individuals for illegal actions. They may impose criminal penalties, but not exceeding three years' imprisonment. They may not require military service beyond that required by the ordinary laws governing the defence force. An emergency measure may be disapproved by the National Assembly, in which case it lapses, and no emergency measure may interfere with the elections, powers or sittings of Parliament or the provincial legislatures. The courts have the power to determine the validity of any emergency measure.
The constitution places strict limits on any detention without trial during a state of emergency. A friend or family member of the detainee must be informed, and the name and place of detention must be published in the Government Gazette. The detainee must have access to a doctor and a legal representative. The detainee must be brought before a court within at most ten days, for the court to determine whether the detention is necessary, and if not released may demand repeated review every ten days. At the court review the detainee must be allowed legal representation and must be allowed to appear in person. The provisions on detention without trial do not apply to prisoners of war in an international conflict; instead they must be treated in accordance with the Geneva Conventions and other international law.
Spain
In Spain, there are three degrees of state of emergency (estado de emergencia in Spanish): alarma (alarm or alert), excepción (exception[al circumstance]) and sitio (siege). They are named by the constitution, which limits which rights may be suspended, but regulated by the "Ley Orgánica 4/1981" (Organic Law).
On 4 December 2010, the first state of alert was declared following the air traffic controllers strike.[118][119] It was the first time since the Francisco Franco's regime that a state of emergency was declared.[120] The second state of alert was declared on 14 March 2020 due to the coronavirus pandemic.[121] The third state of alert was declared before the end of October 2020 given the difficulties to control the spread of said pandemic.[122]
Sri Lanka
In Sri Lanka, the president is able to proclaim emergency regulations under the Public Security Ordinance in the constitution in order to preserve public security and public order; suppression of mutiny, riot or civil commotion; or maintenance of supplies and services essential to the life of the community. These regulations last for one month unless confirmed otherwise by Parliament.[123]
Switzerland
According to Art. 185 of the Swiss Federal Constitution The Federal Council (Bundesrat) can call up in their own competence military personnel of maximum 4000 militia for three weeks to safeguard inner or outer security (called Federal Intervention or Federal Execution, respectively). A larger number of soldiers or of a longer duration is subject to parliamentary decision. For deployments within Switzerland the principle of subsidiarity rules: as a first step, unrest has to be overcome with the aid of cantonal police units.
Syria
An emergency prevailed in Syria from 1962 to 2011. Originally predicated on the conflict with Israel, the emergency acted to centralize authority in the presidency and the national security apparatus while silencing public dissent. The emergency was terminated in response to protests that preceded the Syrian Civil War. Under the 2012 constitution, the president may pass an emergency decree with a 2/3 concurrence of his ministers, provided that he presents it to the People's Assembly for constitutional review.
Trinidad and Tobago
Sections 7 though 12 of the Constitution[124] set out the legal basis for declaring that a state of emergency exists. The president, under the advice of the prime minister, may make a proclamation that a "state of public emergency" exists if:
"A public emergency has arisen as a result of the imminence of a state of war between Trinidad and Tobago and a foreign state,
A public emergency has arisen as a result of the occurrence of any earthquake, hurricane, flood, fire, outbreak of pestilence or of infectious disease, or other calamity whether similar to the foregoing or not,
Action has been taken, or is immediately threatened, by any person, of such a nature and on so extensive a scale, as to be likely to endanger the public safety or to deprive the community or any substantial portion of the community of supplies or services essential to life." (ss. 8 (2)).
Upon declaring that a state of emergency exists, the President may make regulations to deal with the situation at hand. The regulations can even infringe upon the rights enshrined within sections 4 and 5 of the Constitution (e.g. freedom of speech, freedom of movement, etc.) but only to such extent as such constitutional encroachments are "reasonably justifiable for the purpose of dealing with the situation that exists during that period." (ss. 7 (3)). Once the President has declared that a state of emergency exists, the initial duration of that proclamation is 15 days, unless revoked sooner. The state of emergency can then be extended for up to three months by a simple majority vote of the House of Representatives and can be extended by a further three months by a three-fifths majority vote of the House of Representatives and must also be passed in the Senate.
On 4 August 1995, a state of emergency was declared to remove the Speaker of the HouseOccah Seapaul by Prime Minister Patrick Manning during a constitutional crisis.[127] The government had attempted to remove the speaker via a no-confidence motion, which failed. The state of emergency was used to remove the speaker using the emergency powers granted.[128]
On 22 August 2011 at 8:00pm, Prime Minister, Kamla Persad-Bissessar, announced a state of emergency in an attempt to crack down on the trafficking of illegal drugs and firearms, in addition to gangs.[129] The decision of the President, George Maxwell Richards, to issue the proclamation for the state of emergency was debated in the country's Parliament as required by the Constitution on 2 September 2011 and passed by the required simple majority of the House of Representatives. On 4 September, the Parliament extended the state of emergency for a further three months. It ended in December 2011.
On 15 May 2021 at 2:50pm, Prime Minister, Keith Rowley, declared a state of emergency following a mass surge in the number of deaths and COVID-19 infections, no hospital beds being available and a lack of COVID-19 vaccines in dealing with a rapid and deadly spread of the COVID-19 pandemic in Trinidad and Tobago,[130][131][132] noted as being one of the worst in the world.[133][134] On 24 August, the Parliament extended the state of emergency for a further three months.[135]
Since the foundation of the Republic of Turkey in 1923 the military conducted three coups d'état and announced martial law. Martial law between 1978 and 1983 was replaced by a state of emergency that lasted until November 2002. The latest state of emergency was declared by President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan on 20 July 2016 following a failed coup attempt on 15 July 2016 by a faction of the country's armed forces. It was lifted on 18 July 2018.
In the United Kingdom, only the British Sovereign,[136] on the advice of the Privy Council, or a Minister of the Crown in exceptional circumstances, has the power to introduce emergency regulations under the Civil Contingencies Act 2004, in case of an emergency, broadly defined as war or attack by a foreign power, terrorism which poses a threat of serious damage to the security of the UK, or events which threaten serious damage to human welfare or the environment of a place in the UK. The duration of these regulations is limited to thirty days, but may be extended by Parliament. A state of emergency was last invoked in 1974 by Prime Minister Edward Heath in response to increasing industrial action.
The United States Constitution implicitly provides some emergency powers in the article about the executive power:
Congress may authorize the government to call forth the militia to execute the laws, suppress an insurrection or repel an invasion.
Congress may authorize the government to suspend consideration of writs of habeas corpus "when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety may require it."
Felony charges may be brought without presentment or grand juryindictment in cases arising "in the militia, when in actual service in time of war or public danger."
A state government may engage in war without Congress's approval if "actually invaded, or in such imminent Danger as will not admit of delay."
Aside from these, many provisions of law exist in various jurisdictions, which take effect only upon an executive declaration of emergency; some 500 federal laws take effect upon a presidential declaration of emergency. The National Emergencies Act regulates this process at the federal level. It requires the President to specifically identify the provisions activated and to renew the declaration annually so as to prevent an arbitrarily broad or open-ended emergency. Presidents have occasionally taken action justified as necessary or prudent because of a state of emergency, only to have the action struck down in court as unconstitutional.[137]
A state governor or local mayor may declare a state of emergency within their jurisdiction. This is common at the state level in response to natural disasters. The Federal Emergency Management Agency maintains a system of assets, personnel and training to respond to such incidents. For example, on 10 December 2015, Washington state Governor Jay Inslee declared a state of emergency due to flooding and landslides caused by heavy rains.[138]
The 1977 International Emergency Economic Powers Act allows the government to freeze assets, limit trade and confiscate property in response to an "unusual and extraordinary threat" to the United States that originates substantially outside of it. As of 2015 more than twenty emergencies under the IEEPA remain active regarding various subjects, the oldest of which was declared in 1979 with regard to the government of Iran. Another ongoing national emergency, declared after the September 11 attacks, authorizes the president to retain or reactivate military personnel beyond their normal term of service.[139]
In 2020, it was common for states to enact a state of emergency due to the COVID-19 pandemic.[140]
On 26 July 2024, the Governor of West Virginia in the United States, Jim Justice declared a state of emergency due to the drought.[141] The declaration was originally supposed to last for 30 days; but was later extended on 23 August 2024 for an additional 30 days. [142]
On 9 January 2024, Ecuador's President Daniel Noboa declared a state of emergency following the escape of José Adolfo Macías Villamar, leader of the Los Choneros drug cartel, from prison.
Active in 2023
On 10 November 2023, Icelandic authorities declared a state of emergency after a series of powerful earthquakes rocked the country's southwestern Reykjanes peninsula, signalling the increased likelihood of a volcanic eruption in the region. The village of Grindavík was ordered to evacuate due to the imminent volcanic eruption of the Fagradalsfjall volcano.
On 4 August 2023, Ethiopia's Council of ministers declared a state of emergency in the Amhara region after clashes between regional armed forces and the military.
On 7 February 2023, Turkey's President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan declared a three-month long state of emergency in 10 cities due to the 2023 Turkey–Syria earthquake.
On 8 September 2023, United States President Joe Biden extended the state of emergency declared by George W. Bush after the September 11 attacks.[144]
On 23 February 2022, Ukraine announced in response to the Russian invasion of its territory that it would declare a nationwide state of emergency, excluding the occupied territories in Donbas. On the same day, Russia began to evacuate its embassy in Kyiv and also lowered the Russian flag from the top of the building.
On 24 February 2022, Moldova announced that it will declare a nationwide state of emergency in response to the invasion, as thousands of Ukrainians flee into Moldovan territory.
On 24 February 2022, Lithuania declared the state of emergency due to possible disturbances and provocations as large military forces massed in Russia and Belarus.
On 26 March 2022, El Salvador declared a state of emergency after 62 people were murdered, making it the most violent day since the end of the civil war in 1992.
On 2 September 2021, Poland declared a state of emergency in the terrain surrounding Belarus–Poland border. The request was motivated by – according to government – possible threats to security and public order in part of the territory of Poland.[145] It covered 183 localities near the Belarusian border: 115 in Podlaskie Voivodeship and 68 in Lublin Voivodeship[146]
On 15 September 2021, Alberta declared a state of public health emergency to protect their health care system that became in crisis because of COVID-19.[147]
On 2 November 2021, Ethiopia declared a state of emergency aimed to protect civilians from atrocities being committed by the Tigray People's Liberation Front in several parts of the country.[148]
On 18 March 2020, PortugalPresidentMarcelo Rebelo de Sousa declared a state of emergency for COVID-19.[157] It was renewed twice (2 and 17 April) in the constitutionally-mandated 15-day periods, lasting until 1 minute before midnight on 2 May 2020.[158] Beginning midnight, 3 May 2020, the country is now in a "situation of calamity" (Portuguese: situação de calamidade), a different status enshrined in the Basic Law of Civil Protection, which allows for restrictions on circulation or conditioning in the operation of certain establishments, but not the suspension of constitutional rights and freedoms as with the state of emergency.[159]
On 14 February 2023, New Zealand's Minister of Emergency Management Kieran McAnulty declared a national state of emergency following severe and widespread impacts from Ex-Tropical Cyclone Gabrielle. The state of emergency was lifted on 14 March.
On 21 March 2020, GeorgianPresidentSalome Zurabishvili declared a state of emergency for COVID-19. State of emergency was prolonged for one month on 22 April 2020 and expired on 23 May 2020.
On 19 March 2020, the Moroccan government declared a "state of health emergency" for COVID-19, to take effect the following day (20 March).[195]
In November 2019, New South Wales, Australia, declared a seven-day state of emergency granting "emergency powers" to fire-fighting agencies due to major bushfires occurring in the state.[196]
In October 2019, Ecuador declared a 60-day state of emergency after violent protests following the ending of fuel subsidies.[197][198]
On 18 October 2019, a state of emergency was declared in the capital of Chile, Santiago, after violent protests broke out in response to the rising cost of living.[199] This state of emergency was later extended to other cities in the country.[200] The state of emergency was lifted on 27 October 2019.[201]
At midnight on 23 April 2019, a state of emergency was declared across Sri Lanka following multiple bomb attacks on churches, luxury hotels and other locations across the country in which 253 people were killed and more than 500 injured.[202][203][204] After being extended three times, the state of emergency was lifted on 25 August 2019.[205]
On 12 August 2017, a state of emergency was declared in the U.S. state of Virginia due to escalating tensions amid protesters and counter-protesters in Charlottesville.[211]
On 21 September 2016, a state of emergency was declared in the U.S. state of North Carolina for riots in Charlotte after a police shooting of a black male.[citation needed]
On 12 June 2016, following the Orlando nightclub shooting in which at least 50 people were killed (including the shooter), the Governor of Florida declared a state of emergency in the immediate Orlando area.[215]
In March 2013, Myanmar declared a state of emergency in the city of Meiktila due to ongoing sectarian violence.[221]
Egypt had been under a nearly-continuous state of emergency since 1967 (interrupted for 18 months in 1980–81); the People's Assembly renewed it every two to three years.[30][32][222] The state of emergency expired on 31 May 2012.[223]
Tunisia declared state of emergency January 2011, following unrest from economic issues.[224]
28 November 2011 – Slovakia declared a state of emergency for numerous hospitals, due to resignation of many Medicare workers.[225]
21 August 2011 – Trinidad and Tobago, in an attempt to crack down on the trafficking of illegal drugs and firearms, in addition to gangs.[226]
15 March 2011 – Bahrain declared a state of emergency on 15 March 2011 and asked the military to reassert its control over the capital, Manama, as clashes between Shia and Sunni groups spread across the country. Bahrain has been gripped by deepening political unrest and widespread protests for over a month, with the Shia majority and some Sunni liberals calling for democracy and an end to discrimination.[227]
30 September 2010 – A state of emergency was declared in Ecuador due to a coup by armed forces.
11 April 2009 – Thailand's Prime Minister Abhisit Vejjajiva declared a state of emergency in the areas of Pattaya and Chonburi, in response to anti-government protesters breaking into the conference center of a hotel complex in the seaside resort city of Pattaya, in the then-venue site of the ASEAN was being held, immediately resulting in its cancellation.[228] Another state of emergency on 12 April 2009, was announced in Bangkok and the surrounding areas, due to a heightened escalation of tension between the government and anti-government protesters, but was later lifted.[229]
5 February 2009 – China was in a state of emergency due to extreme droughts in the country.
11 January 2007 – Bangladesh was in a state of emergency due to electoral violence.[231] This ended on 16 December 2008, when new parliamentary elections were organized.
2 March 1997 – The 1997 unrest in Albania, also known as the Lottery Uprising or Anarchy in Albania, was an uprising sparked by Ponzi scheme failures. Albania descended into anarchy and violence in which the government was toppled and some 2,000 people were killed. On 1 March, Prime Minister Aleksandër Meksi resigned and on 2 March President Sali Berisha declared a state of emergency.[250]
1992 to 2011 – Algeria endures a 19-year state of emergency enacted at the beginning of the 1992 coup. The state of emergency, which suspended citizens' rights in lieu of military power, was lifted after the Algerian Government gave in to protester demands during the 2011 Arab Spring.[7]
July–August 1990 – Trinidad and Tobago declared a state of emergency when a group stormed Parliament and a TV Station holding government officials, including the prime minister, at ransom.[255] See Jamaat al Muslimeen coup attempt
July 1985 to February 1990 – South Africa, in response to increasing civil unrest and township violence opposing apartheid rule.[256]
1975 to 1977 – India, Indira Gandhi declared a state of emergency in 1975 in response to political opposition and her own conviction on charges of electoral fraud. The Emergency lasted for 21 months.
1972 to 1976 – Mauritius, due to ethnic and labor-related unrest. Elections were suspended during this period, and political rights were broadly circumscribed.
1970 to 1972 – Trinidad and Tobago; a state of emergency was declared to deal with the Black Power Revolution which also included a mutiny in the Military.
Martial law is the replacement of civilian government by military rule and the suspension of civilian legal processes for military powers. Martial law can continue for a specified amount of time, or indefinitely, and standard civil liberties may be suspended for as long as martial law continues. Most often, martial law is declared in times of war and/or emergencies such as civil unrest and natural disasters. Alternatively, martial law may be declared in instances of military coup d'états.
The president of India is the head of state of the Republic of India. The president is the nominal head of the executive, the first citizen of the country, as well as the supreme commander of the Indian Armed Forces. Droupadi Murmu is the 15th and current president, having taken office from 25 July 2022.
Rule by decree is a style of governance allowing quick, unchallenged promulgation of law by a single person or group of people, usually without legislative approval. While intended to allow rapid responses to a crisis, rule by decree is easily abused and is often a key feature of dictatorships.
A commander-in-chief or supreme commander is the person who exercises supreme command and control over an armed force or a military branch. As a technical term, it refers to military competencies that reside in a country's executive leadership, a head of state, head of government, or other designated government official.
The Constitution of India is the supreme legal document of India. The document lays down the framework that demarcates fundamental political code, structure, procedures, powers, and duties of government institutions and sets out fundamental rights, directive principles, and the duties of citizens. It is the longest written national constitution in the world.
The president of Sri Lanka is the head of state and head of government of the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka. The president is the chief executive of the union government and the commander-in-chief of the Sri Lanka Armed Forces. The powers, functions and duties of prior presidential offices, in addition to their relation with the Prime minister and Government of Sri Lanka, have over time differed with the various constitutional documents since the creation of the office. The president appoints the Prime Minister of Sri Lanka who can command the confidence of the Parliament of Sri Lanka.
The president of the People's Democratic Republic of Algeria is the head of state and chief executive of Algeria, as well as the commander-in-chief of the Algerian People's National Armed Forces.
Part XVIII of the Constitution of India allows for a constitutional setup that can be proclaimed by the President of India as a state of emergency, when the consultant group perceives and warns against grave threats to the nation from internal and external sources or from financial situations of crisis. Under Article 352 of the Indian constitution, upon the advice of the cabinet of ministers, the President can overrule many provisions of the constitution, which guarantee fundamental rights to the citizens of India and acts governing devolution of powers to the states which form the federation. In the history of independent India, such a state of emergency has been declared three times.
The first instance was between 26 October 1962 to 21 November 1962 during the India-China war, when "the security of India" was declared as being "threatened by external aggression".
The second instance was between 3 and 17 December 1971, which was originally proclaimed during the Indo-Pakistan war.
The third proclamation between 25 June 1975 to January 1977 was under controversial circumstances of political instability under Indira Gandhi's premiership, when emergency was declared on the basis of "internal disturbances". The proclamation immediately followed a ruling in the Allahabad High Court, that voided the Prime Minister's election from Rae Bareli in the 1971 Indian general election. She was also prohibited from contesting election for next 6 years, challenging her legitimacy to continue in her post. Indira Gandhi, instead recommended to the then president Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed to proclaim a state of emergency to strengthen her hand.
The Emergencies Act is a statute passed by the Parliament of Canada in 1988 which authorizes the Government of Canada to take extraordinary temporary measures to respond to public welfare emergencies, public order emergencies, international emergencies and war emergencies. The law replaces the War Measures Act passed in 1914. It asserts that any government action continues to be subject to the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms and the Canadian Bill of Rights.
The Constitution of India establishes the structure of the Indian government, including the relationship between the federal government and state governments. Part XI of the Indian constitution specifies the distribution of legislative, administrative and executive powers between the union government and the States of India. The legislative powers are categorised under a Union List, a State List and a Concurrent List, representing, respectively, the powers conferred upon the Union government, those conferred upon the State governments and powers shared among them.
The emergency law in Egypt details the framework governing the declaration of a state of emergency in Egypt. Under the emergency law, the government is granted extended powers and a special court is established to overview crimes subject to its jurisdiction.
The Essential Commodities Act (ECA) is an act of the Parliament of India that was established to ensure the delivery of certain commodities or products, the supply of which, if obstructed due to hoarding or black marketing, would affect the normal life of the people. This includes foodstuff, drugs, fuel etc. This act was modified by the Essential Commodities (Amendment) Act, 2020 as part of the 2020 Indian farm reforms.
States of emergency in France are dispositions to grant special powers to the executive branch in case of exceptional circumstances. A state of emergency was declared following the November 2015 Paris attacks, which expired, after five extensions, in November 2017.
The Commander-in-Chief of Defence Services is the supreme commander of the Tatmadaw, the armed forces of Myanmar. Since a state of emergency was declared following the 2021 military coup d'état, the Commander-in-Chief has been the highest authority in the country, with plenary power delegated by the president and the National Defence and Security Council (NDSC). Even in peacetime, however, the Tatmadaw is an independent branch of government under control of the Commander-in-Chief, though certain actions of the Commander-in-Chief require the approval of the NDSC.
Albert Bryan Jr. is an Virgin Islander politician serving since 2019 as the ninth governor of the United States Virgin Islands.
The COVID-19 pandemic in Virginia is part of the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. The first confirmed case was reported on March 7, 2020, in Fort Belvoir, and the first suspected case arrived in Virginia on February 23, 2020, which was a man who had recently traveled to Egypt. In response to the spread of COVID-19, the state mandated a stay at home order from March 18, 2020, until May 12, 2020, when the state began a four-phased reopening plan that lasted through July 1, 2020. From May 31, 2020, until May 28, 2021, the state enforced a mask mandate, being one of the first states in the nation to enforce a statewide mask mandate which was to stop the spread of the disease. The state remained relatively stagnant in COVID-19 cases through November 2020, until there was a large surge in COVID-19 cases during the winter of 2020–21, as part of a nationwide surge in cases. Cases gradually subsided to summer and fall 2020 numbers by March 2021, with numbers falling to early pandemic numbers by June 2021.
The COVID-19 pandemic has influenced politics around the world; it affected the governing and political systems of multiple countries, reflected in states of emergency, suspensions of legislative activities, isolation or deaths of multiple politicians and reschedulings of elections due to fears of spreading the virus. The pandemic has triggered broader debates about political issues such as the relative advantages of democracy and autocracy, how states respond to crises, politicization of beliefs about the virus, and the adequacy of existing frameworks of international cooperation. Additionally, the pandemic has, in some cases, posed several challenges to democracy, leading to it being undermined and damaged.
State, territorial, tribal, and local governments responded to the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States with various declarations of emergency, closure of schools and public meeting places, lockdowns, and other restrictions intended to slow the progression of the virus.
A state of emergency occurs when any level of government assumes authority it does not generally possess to respond to a crisis. This is done by invoking said authority under specific legislation, and permits the government to expend funds, mobilize forces, or suspend civil liberties.
The Biosecurity Act 2015 is an Act of the Parliament of Australia which manages biosecurity risks in Australia at the national border. It was enacted on 16 June 2015, after the Bill was passed with bipartisan support on 14 May 2015. It covers both agricultural and human medical biosecurity risks, including epidemics and pandemics, and is designed to contain and/or deal with any "diseases and pests that may cause harm to human, animal or plant health or the environment" in Australia.
↑ "Biosecurity Act 2015". Federal Register of Legislation. Australian Government. 7 March 2019. Archived from the original on 4 April 2020. Retrieved 30 March 2020.
↑ "Anti-mask law gazetted". Hong Kong's Information Services Department (in Chinese (Hong Kong)). Archived from the original on 20 September 2023. Retrieved 19 November 2019.
↑ Constitution Review Group (1996). "Report"(PDF). "The Government, § 3: whether Article 28.3 should be amended to provide for a limit on the period during which a law enacting a state of emergency continues to have effect and for preserving certain rights during that period" and "Trial of Offences, § 4: special courts". Archived from the original(PDF) on 9 October 2017. Retrieved 2 April 2017.
↑ "Article 172 (Dissolution)". Constitution of the Portuguese Republic. Diário da República Eletrónico. Archived from the original on 7 April 2020. Retrieved 18 March 2020.
↑ Currie, Iain; de Waal, Johan (2005). "Chapter Thirty-three: States of Emergency". The Bill of Rights Handbook (5thed.). Cape Town: Juta & Company Ltd. pp.798–806. ISBN978-0-7021-5923-7.
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