Nebraska school district soybean biodiesel powered bus made possible through the Soybean Board of Nebraska grant program.
Vegetable oils are increasingly used as a substitute for fossil fuels. Vegetable oils are the basis of biodiesel, which can be used like conventional diesel. Some vegetable oil blends are used in unmodified vehicles, but straight vegetable oil often needs specially prepared vehicles which have a method of heating the oil to reduce its viscosity and surface tension, sometimes specially made injector nozzles, increased injection pressure and stronger glow-plugs, in addition to fuel pre-heating is used.[2] Another alternative is vegetable oil refining.
Concerns have been expressed about growing crops for fuel use rather than food and the environmental impacts of large-scale agriculture and land clearing required to expand the production of vegetable oil for fuel use. These effects/impacts would need to be specifically researched and evaluated, economically and ecologically, and weighed in balance with the proposed benefits of vegetable oil fuel in relation to the use of other fuel sources.
However, as with other "renewable" energy sources, there may be a (relatively small) carbon footprint associated with the production or distribution of vegetable oil.
Vegetable oil is far less toxic than other fuels such as gasoline, petroleum-based diesel, ethanol, or methanol, and has a much higher flash point (approximately 275-290°C).[3] The higher flash point reduces the risk of accidental ignition. Some types of vegetable oil are edible.
The list of vegetable oils article discusses which types of vegetable oil are used for fuel and where different types are grown.
Transportation
Vegetable oil is used for transportation in four different ways:
Vegetable oil blends - Mixing vegetable oil with diesel lets users get some of the advantages of burning vegetable oil and is often done with no modification to the vehicle.[4]
Biodiesel - Biodiesel can be produced from vegetable oil through the process of transesterification. Biodiesel burns like normal diesel and works fine in any diesel engine. The name just indicates that the fuel came from vegetable oil.
Straight vegetable oil - Straight vegetable oil works in diesel engines if it is heated first.[5] Some diesel engines already heat their fuel, others need a small electric heater on the fuel line. How well it works depends on the heating system, the engine, the type of vegetable oil (thinner is easier), and the climate (warmer is easier). Some data is available on results users are seeing.[6] As vegetable oil has become more popular as a fuel, engines are being designed to handle it better. The Elsbett engine is designed to run on straight vegetable oil.[7] However, as of the start of 2007, it seems that there are not any production vehicles warrantied for burning straight vegetable oil, although Deutz offers a tractor and John Deere are both known to be in late stages of engine development. There is a German grapeseed oil fuel standard DIN 51605. At this point straight vegetable oil is only a niche market although the market segment in Germany is rapidly growing with large haulage vehicle fleets adopting the fuel, largely for economic reasons. A growing number of decentralised oil mills provide a large part of this fuel.[8]
Vegetable oil refining - Vegetable oil can be used as feedstock for an oil refinery. There it can be transformed into fuel by hydrocracking (which breaks big molecules into smaller ones using hydrogen) or hydrogenation (which adds hydrogen to molecules). These methods can produce gasoline, diesel, or propane. Some commercial examples of vegetable oil refining are NExBTL, H-Bio, and the ConocoPhilips Process.[9]
The transition can start with biodiesel, vegetable oil refining, and vegetable oil blends, since these technologies do not require the capital outlay of converting an engine to run on vegetable oils. Because it costs to convert vegetable oil into biodiesel it is expected that vegetable oil will always be cheaper than biodiesel. After there are production cars that can use straight vegetable oil and a standard type available at gas stations, consumers will probably choose straight vegetable oil to save money. So the transition to vegetable oil can happen gradually.
In some countries, filling stations sell bio-diesel more cheaply than conventional diesel.
In Europe, straight vegetable oil (SVO) costs 150 pence/litre at most supermarkets [11] and somewhat less when bought in bulk direct from the manufacturers whereas diesel costs at least 130 pence per litre (in the UK [12]) to well over that (depends on the year, 1.4 euro is the current market price in central Europe).[13] In the USA, diesel costs about 0,6 $ per liter[14] and the cheapest SVO costs about the same, with more expensive oils costing more than that (up to $7 per gallon).[15]
The availability of biodiesel around the World is increasing. It is estimated that by 2010 the market for biodiesel will be 7.5 billion litres (2 billion USgallons) in the U.S and 9.5 billion litres (2.5 billion USgallons) in Europe.[16] Biodiesel currently has 3% of the diesel market in Germany and is the number 1 alternative fuel.[17] The German government has a Biofuels Roadmap in which they expect to reach 10% biofuels by 2010 with the diesel 10% coming from fuel made from vegetable oil.[18]
From 2005 to 2007 a number of types of vegetable oil have doubled in price. The rise in vegetable oil prices is largely attributed to biofuel demand.[19]
Much of the fuel price at the pump is due to fuel tax. If you buy vegetable oil at the grocery store it does not have such high taxes. So at times people have bought vegetable oil at the store for their cars because it was cheaper. They did this in spite of the fact that packaging by the gallon adds to the cost and it was illegal to use in a car since no fuel tax had been paid on it.[20]
Since vegetable oil (even as biodiesel) does not contribute to greenhouse gas, governments may tax it much less than gasoline as they have done with ethanol.[21] This would help them reach Kyoto protocol targets.
The World production of vegetable oil seed is forecast to be 418 million tonnes in 2008/09. After pressing this will make 131 million tonnes of vegetable oil.[22] Much of this is from Oil Palm, and palm oil production is growing at 5% per year. At about 7.5lb/USgal (900 g/L) this is about 38 billion USgallons (144 billion L). Currently vegetable oil is mostly used in food and some industrial uses with a small percentage used as fuel. The major fuel usage is by conversion to biodiesel with about 3billion US gallons (11,000,000m3) in 2009.[23]
In 2004 the US consumed 530 billion litres (140 billion USgal) of gasoline and 150 billion litres (40 billion USgal) of diesel.[24] In biodiesel it says oil palm produces 5940 litres per hectare (635 USgal/acre) of palm oil each year. To make 180billion US gallons (680,000,000m3) of vegetable oil each year would require 1,150,000 square kilometres (440,000sqmi) or a square of land 1,070 kilometres (660mi) on a side.
"The gradual move from oil has begun. Over the next 15 to 20 years we may see biofuels providing a full 25 percent of the world's energy needs. While the move is good for reducing greenhouse emissions, soaring oil prices have encouraged most countries to 'go green' by switching to greater use of biofuels." - Alexander Müller, Assistant Director-General of Sustainable Development at the FAO.[25]
Algaculture could potentially produce far more oil per unit area.[26] Results from pilot algaculture projects using sterile CO2 from power plant smokestacks look promising.
Genetic modifications to soybeans are already being used. Genetic modifications and breeding can increase vegetable oil yields. From 1979 to 2005 the soybean yield in bushels per acre more than doubled.[27] A company has developed a variety of camelina sativa that yields 20% more oil than the standard variety.[28]
There is concern that the current growing demand for vegetable oil is causing deforestation, with old forests being replaced with oil palms.[29] When land is cleared, it is often burned, releases large amounts of the greenhouse gasCO2. Vegetable oil production would have to increase substantially to replace gasoline and diesel. With current technology, such an increase in production would have a substantial environmental impact.[30]
In some poor countries the rising price of vegetable oil is causing problems.[31][32] There are those that say using a food crop for fuel sets up competition between food in poor countries and fuel in rich countries. Some propose that fuel only be made from non-edible vegetable oils like jatropha oil. Others argue that the problem is more fundamental. The law of supply and demand predicts that if fewer farmers are producing food the price of food will rise. It may take some time, as farmers can take some time to change which things they are growing, but increasing demand for biofuels is likely to result in price increases for many kinds of food. Some have pointed out that there are poor farmers and poor countries making more money because of the higher price of vegetable oil.[33]
With the use of non-edible vegetable oils produced by trees such as Millettia Pinnata (formerly Pongamia Pinnata) or the Moringa oleifera tree, both which grow on borderline or non-arable land, the food versus fuel debate becomes less of an either/or question. Apart from their facility of growing in non-arable and/or marginal land, these trees offer major advantages over peanut, soy-bean, sunflower, etc., in that they have long lives (up to 100 years), very low maintenance (since the intensive husbandry is limited to the first few years of their producing lives) and can provide cash-crops to rural areas, such as rural India. In the case of Millettia Pinnata and a few others, the fact that they are nitrogen-fixing legumes is another very important factor, in that they do not deplete the soil. Among other benefits of these trees is that they have root-systems that penetrate much deeper and do not compete with shallow-rooted plants, like grass (once the trees have attained a certain maturity). This means that the land can be used for multiple purposes, such as grazing for animals. Yet another benefit of using Millettia Pinnata to produce bio-diesel is that it can tolerate low rainfall (as little as 250 ml per year), far below what most food-crops require, thus reducing yet more their potential to compete.[34][35][36][37]
Some species of algae contain as much as 50% vegetable oil. Algae have very high growth rates compared to plants normally used to produce vegetable oil. Algae could potentially produce much more oil per area of land than current farming methods.[26] Producing vegetable oil this way could result in reduced deforestation and less competition for food production land. Yusuf Chisti of the Institute of Technology and Engineering at Massey University states, "As demonstrated here, microalgal biodiesel is technically feasible. It is the only renewable biodiesel that can potentially completely displace liquid fuels derived from petroleum. Economics of producing microalgal biodiesel need to improve substantially to make it competitive with petrodiesel, but the level of improvement necessary appears to be attainable."[38]
Governments trying to address the external costs of coal power plants may have a carbon tax or carbon credit that provides additional motivation to use CO2 from smokestacks. Since growing algae requires large amounts of sterile CO2, smokestacks can be utilized for algaculture. Several commercial pilot plants are under construction.[39][40][41]
There is substantial research and development work in this area but as of 2007 there is no commercial vegetable oil produced from algae and used as biofuel. ExxonMobil is investing $600 million and estimates they are 5 to 10 years from significant production, but could invest billions in final development and commercialization.[42] If and when the commercialization challenges are overcome, vegetable oil production could expand very rapidly. In 2012, United States President Barack Obama supported the idea of getting oil from algae.[43]
Biofuel is a fuel that is produced over a short time span from biomass, rather than by the very slow natural processes involved in the formation of fossil fuels, such as oil. Biofuel can be produced from plants or from agricultural, domestic or industrial biowaste. Biofuels are mostly used for transportation, but can also be used for heating and electricity. Biofuels are regarded as a renewable energy source. However, the use of biofuel has been controversial because of the several disadvantages associated with the use of it. These include for example : the "food vs fuel" debate, biofuel production methods being sustainable or not, leading to deforestation and loss of biodiversity or not.
Biodiesel is a renewable biofuel, a form of diesel fuel, derived from biological sources like vegetable oils, animal fats, or recycled greases, and consisting of long-chain fatty acid esters. It is typically made from fats.
Vegetable oil can be used as an alternative fuel in diesel engines and in heating oil burners. When vegetable oil is used directly as a fuel, in either modified or unmodified equipment, it is referred to as straight vegetable oil (SVO) or pure plant oil (PPO). Conventional diesel engines can be modified to help ensure that the viscosity of the vegetable oil is low enough to allow proper atomization of the fuel. This prevents incomplete combustion, which would damage the engine by causing a build-up of carbon. Straight vegetable oil can also be blended with conventional diesel or processed into biodiesel, HVO or bioliquids for use under a wider range of conditions.
The Aquatic Species Program was a research program in the United States launched in 1978 by President Jimmy Carter and was funded by the United States Department of Energy, which over the course of nearly two decades looked into the production of energy using algae. Initially, the funding of the Aquatic Species Program was to develop renewable fuel for transportation. Later, the program focused on producing bio-diesel from algae. The research program was discontinued in 1996. The research staff compiled their work and conclusions into a 1998 report.
This article describes the use and availability of biodiesel in various countries around the world.
Biofuel development in India centres mainly around the cultivation and processing of Jatropha plant seeds, which are very rich in oil, ranging from 27 to 40%, and averaging 34.4%. The drivers for this are historic, functional, economic, environmental, moral and political.
The United States produces mainly biodiesel and ethanol fuel, which uses corn as the main feedstock. The US is the world's largest producer of ethanol, having produced nearly 16 billion gallons in 2017 alone. The United States, together with Brazil accounted for 85 percent of all ethanol production, with total world production of 27.05 billion gallons. Biodiesel is commercially available in most oilseed-producing states. As of 2005, it was somewhat more expensive than fossil diesel, though it is still commonly produced in relatively small quantities.
Renewable Fuels are fuels produced from renewable resources. Examples include: biofuels, Hydrogen fuel, and fully synthetic fuel produced from ambient carbon dioxide and water. This is in contrast to non-renewable fuels such as natural gas, LPG (propane), petroleum and other fossil fuels and nuclear energy. Renewable fuels can include fuels that are synthesized from renewable energy sources, such as wind and solar. Renewable fuels have gained in popularity due to their sustainability, low contributions to the carbon cycle, and in some cases lower amounts of greenhouse gases. The geo-political ramifications of these fuels are also of interest, particularly to industrialized economies which desire independence from Middle Eastern oil.
Biofuel is fuel that is produced from organic matter (biomass), including plant materials and animal waste. It is considered a renewable source of energy that can assist in reducing carbon emissions. The two main types of biofuel currently being produced in Australia are biodiesel and bioethanol, used as replacements for diesel and petrol (gasoline) respectively. As of 2017 Australia is a relatively small producer of biofuels, accounting for 0.2% of world bioethanol production and 0.1% of world biodiesel production.
Algae fuel, algal biofuel, or algal oil is an alternative to liquid fossil fuels that uses algae as its source of energy-rich oils. Also, algae fuels are an alternative to commonly known biofuel sources, such as corn and sugarcane. When made from seaweed (macroalgae) it can be known as seaweed fuel or seaweed oil.
The following table shows the vegetable oil yields of common energy crops associated with biodiesel production. Included is growing zone data, relevant to farmers and agricultural scientists. This is unrelated to ethanol production, which relies on starch, sugar and cellulose content instead of oil yields.
Hydrotreated vegetable oil (HVO) is a biofuel made by the hydrocracking or hydrogenation of vegetable oil. Hydrocracking breaks big molecules into smaller ones using hydrogen while hydrogenation adds hydrogen to molecules. These methods can be used to create substitutes for gasoline, diesel, propane, kerosene and other chemical feedstock. Diesel fuel produced from these sources is known as green diesel or renewable diesel.
The biofuel sector in the United Kingdom, under the auspices of the government's Renewable Transport Fuel Obligation (RTFO), has been progressing towards enhanced sustainable energy solutions. Marking a significant stride in this direction was the government's endorsement and introduction of E10 biofuel in late 2021. This fuel blend, consisting of 90% regular unleaded gasoline and 10% ethanol, was introduced as part of an initiative to reduce greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) from transport fuels. The introduction of E10 led to a shift in the renewable fuel landscape in the UK, particularly influencing an increase in the utilization of non-waste feedstocks. In the year 2022, the biofuel sector, as per government reports, achieved a reduction in GHG emissions by 82% in comparison to traditional fossil fuels.
Sustainable biofuel is biofuel produced in a sustainable manner. It is not based on petroleum or other fossil fuels. It includes not using plants that are used for food stuff to produce the fuel thus disrupting the world's food supply.
An aviation biofuel is a biofuel used to power aircraft and is said to be a sustainable aviation fuel (SAF). The International Air Transport Association (IATA) considers it a key element to reducing the carbon footprint within the environmental impact of aviation. Aviation biofuel could help decarbonize medium- and long-haul air travel generating most emissions, and could extend the life of older aircraft types by lowering their carbon footprint. The jargon synthetic paraffinic kerosene (SPK) refers to any non-petroleum-based fuel designed to replace kerosene jet fuel, which are often, but not always, made from biomass.
The use of biofuels varies by region. The world leaders in biofuel development and use are Brazil, United States, France, Sweden and Germany.
Algae fuel in the United States, as with other countries, is under study as a source of biofuel.
Bioliquids are liquid fuels made from biomass for energy purposes other than transport.
Global Clean Energy Holdings (OTC:GCEH) is a Southern California-based renewable energy company with interests in the production and commercialization of non-food-based feedstocks used for the production of biofuels, biomass, and renewable chemicals. It was founded in 2007.
↑ "Figure 7"(GIF). Federalreserve.gov. Retrieved 28 December 2014.
↑ "Biofuels for Transportation". US Department of Energy Office of Science. Genomics:GTL. Systems Biology for Energy and Environment. August 29, 2006.
↑ "AFRICA: Food to eat or to run your car?". UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs - Integrated Regional Information Networks (IRIN). 2007-10-23. Retrieved 2008-11-22.
↑ McKenna, Phil (7 October 2006). "From smokestack to gas tank". New Scientist. Reed Business Information. 192 (2572): 28–29. doi:10.1016/S0262-4079(06)60667-2. 1233.
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