Songket or sungkit is a tenun fabric that belongs to the brocade family of textiles of Brunei, Indonesia, and Malaysia. It is hand-woven in silk or cotton, and intricately patterned with gold or silverthreads.[4] The metallic threads stand out against the background cloth to create a shimmering effect. In the weaving process the metallic threads are inserted in between the silk or cotton weft (latitudinal) threads in a technique called supplementary weft weaving technique.[5]
Songket is often associated with the Srivijaya Empire as the origin of the songket tradition, several types of popular Songket can not be separated from locations that were once under Srivijaya rule, one of the dominant locations which is also believed to be the capital of the Srivijaya Empire in the past, namely Palembang, which located in South Sumatra, Indonesia. Besides Palembang, several areas in Sumatra are also the best-in-class Songket producing locations, which include areas in Minangkabau or West Sumatra such as Pandai Sikek, Silungkang, Koto Gadang, and Padang. Outside of Sumatra, songket is also produced by regions such as Bali, Lombok, Sambas, Sumba, Makassar, Sulawesi, and other areas in Indonesia.
Due to the historical factors of the Srivijaya Empire, trade, and mixed marriages, Songket has also become popular in the Maritime Southeast Asia region, especially in countries around Indonesia such as Brunei, Malaysia, and Singapore.
Based on the analysis conducted on the statues at the Bumiayu temple, South Sumatra, it can be seen that songket has been worn by the people of South Sumatra since the 8th century CE, when Srivijaya was based in Palembang. This statue was found at the Bumiayu Temple Archaeological Site which is located on the downstream bank of Lematang River which empties into Musi River, precisely in Tanah Abang District, Penukal Abab Lematang Ilir Regency approximately 120km to the west of Palembang City.
A group of women dressed in indigenous clothing songket from Batipuh near Padang Panjang highlands of West Sumatra, circa 1895.
The term songket derived from the Malay word of sungkit, which means "to hook". It is referred to the method of songket making; to hook and pick a group of threads, and then slip the gold and silver threads in it.[13] Another theory suggested that it was constructed from the combination of two terms; tusuk (prick) and cukit (pick) that combined as sukit, modified further as sukit and finally songket.[14] Some says that the word songket was derived from songka, a Palembang cap in which gold threads was first woven.[1] The earliest confirmable written proof of this clothing in Malay texts always mentioned sungkit instead of songket, for example the Hikayat Aceh of 1620s and Hikayat Banjar of 1660s.[15]
The Malay word menyongket means ‘to embroider with gold or silver threads’.[16] Songket is a luxury product traditionally worn during ceremonial occasions as sarong, shoulder cloths or head ties and tanjak, a headdress songket. Songket were worn at the courts of Kingdoms in Sumatra especially the Srivijaya, as the source and the origin of Malay culture in Southeast Asia.[17] In the early kingdom age, Songkets are also traditionally worn as an apparel by the Malay royal families in Sumatra such as the Deli Sultanate in Medan, Serdang Sultanate, Palembang Sultanate in Palembang and the recently restored royal house in Jambi and sultanates in Malay Peninsula such as Pattani, Kelantan and Terengganu.[18] The fabric is even mandated as part of the ceremonial court dress of Bruneian royalty since the time of Omar Ali Saifuddien III.[19] Traditionally women are the weavers of songket, however in this modern time men also are known to weave it as well.[1]
Songket weaving traditions at first, historically associated with Srivijaya empire,[20][21] a wealthy 7th to 13th-century maritime trading empire based on Sumatra. Palembang[22] and Minangkabau Pandai Sikek area are the best and the most famous songket producers in Indonesia.[23] According to a Palembang folk tradition that has been narrated for generations, the origin of songket came from the Chinese traders who brought silk threads, while the Indian or Middle Eastern traders brought gold threads. Subsequently, the woven combination has become the exquisitely shimmering golden songket.[22] It associated with areas of Malay settlement in Sumatra, and the production techniques could have been introduced by Indian or Arab merchants.[1]
Songket is a luxurious textile that required some amount of real gold leaves and gold threads to be hand-woven into exquisite fabrics, surely it has become a symbol of luxury and social status.[23] Historically the gold mines are located in Sumatra hinterland; Jambi and Minangkabau Highlands.[24]:451 Although gold threads were found buried in the Srivijaya ruins in Sumatra, along with unpolished rubies and pieces of gold plate, there is no corroborating evidence that the local weavers used gold threads as early as 7th century to early 8th century.[1]
Based on archaeological data, it can be seen that songket has been known by the people of South Sumatra between the 8th to the 9th century CE,[25] as seen in ancient statues cloths motifs from the site of the Bumiayu temple complex in Penukal Abab Lematang Ilir Regency, South Sumatra Province, Indonesia.[2][26] At that time the use of songket was reserved only for the nobility, as seen from the statues which were probably the deified personification of a king. The evidence for the existence of songket can be seen on the lepus motifs found on the vest worn by Figure 1 at the Bumiayu temple complex. The use of lepus motif shows the continuity of that motif that has been around since the 9th century.[2]
The description of textiles reminiscent of songket can be found in 10th century Chinese source from Song dynasty. According to this Song chronicle, in 992 the envoy from She-po (Java) arrived in Chinese court bearing a lot of gifts, consists of silk "woven with floral motifs made of gold threads", ivories, pearls, silk of various colours, fragrant sandalwood, cotton clothes of various colours, turtle shells, betel nut preparation kit, kris dagger with exquisite hilt made of rhino horn and gold, rattan mat with the image of white cockatoo, and a small model of house made of sandalwood adorned with valuable ornaments.[27]:199
The statue of Durga Mahisasuramardini from 13th century Singhasari temple shows the sash is carved with "star flower" motifs, a pattern that continues today in songket design.
Studies of Javanese statues dated from Indonesian Hindu-Buddhist period between 8th to 15th centuries provides a glimpse of the fashion during that period. These statues were decorated elaborately including textiles pattern. The details of kain lower garment of Durga Mahisasuramardini form the 13th-century Singhasari temple near Malang, shows elaborately carved tassels which suggests goldwork decoration. The costume is completed with two sashes draped over the legs carved with bunga bintang or "star flower" motifs, a pattern that continues today in songket design. The precision of stone carved textile suggests the designs are unlikely an invention of sculptor's imagination, and more likely to have replicated a cloth that existed at the time.[28]:154
Various Chinese and Arab accounts mentioned the presence of textiles produced within the region and emphasized the prevalence of weaving in the Malay Peninsula.[29]:19 According to Kelantan tradition this weaving technique came from the north, somewhere in the Cambodia-Siam region and expanded south into Pattani, and finally reach the Malay court of Kelantan and Terengganu as early as the 16th century.[1][30] The weaving of songket continues as a small cottage industry on the outskirts of Kota Bharu and Terengganu.[31] However, Terengganu weavers believe that songket weaving technique was introduced to Malaysia from India through Sumatra's Palembang and Jambi where it probably originated during the time of Srivijaya (7th to 11th century).[1] Nevertheless, Zani Bin Ismail put forth the argument that the origins of songket can be traced to China and subsequently spread to Indochina, including Cambodia and Thailand. His assertion was based on the similarities observed in the handweaving looms of Terengganu, Cambodia, and Thailand.[32]
Another possible of origin of songket based on Liang dynasty record (502-557) is from Langkasuka kingdom, an ancient kingdom dressed in the Malay Peninsula. It's King dressed ‘rose-colored cloth with gold flowers’, which could have been a songket of some kind, as red is traditional color of Songket.[28]:34
Much documentation is sketchy about the origins of the songket but it is most likely that songket weaving was brought to Peninsular Malaysia through intermarriages between royal families. This was a common occurrence in the 15th century for sealing strategic alliances. Production was located in politically significant kingdoms because of the high cost of materials; the gold thread used was originally wound with real gold leaf.[33]
The use of songket vest with lepus motif as described in the statue of the Bumiayu temple, was also popular during the Islamic Palembang Sultanate period from the 16th to 19th centuries, and limited only for the upper class of the society. After the collapse of the sultanate, songket began to spread among non-aristocrats.[2]
Songket is traditionally considered an exquisite, luxurious and prestigious traditional fabric, only worn for special occasions, religious festivals, and traditional social functions. It has become a required garment for brides and grooms for their weddings, as in the traditional wedding costumes of Palembangese, Minangkabau and Balinese people.[35]
In Indonesian tradition, songket has become a marker of social status.[23] Traditionally a certain songket motif is reserved for particular social status. For example in Palembang songket tradition, the lepus motifs were originally reserved only for bangsawan (royalty, nobles or aristocrats).[36] Indeed songket is employed as the social marker of the wearer, even as far as to inform the marital status of the wearer. In old Palembang, widows wore outstanding selendang (shoulder cloth) songket to disclose their social and marital status. There are two kinds of specific songket motifs for widows; those for widows eligible for remarriage is called songket janda berias (dress up widow songket),[37] and those for widow brides is called songket janda pengantin (widow bride songket).[38]
Today, songket are usually made from affordable materials, such as using artificial gold threads made of nylon instead of pure gold threads. Nevertheless, there are few rare songket that is actually made from real gold threads. These are precious textiles that are held as pusaka or heirloom passed down for generations within a family.[39]
Today, songket is mostly worn in traditional settings as traditional costumes for weddings or any traditional ceremonies. Several efforts has been conducted to promote songket as a popular fabric for fashion, either locally and abroad. During the Dutch colonial era, West Sumatran songket were exhibited in the Netherlands. The Sawahlunto Songket Carnival was held in Sawahlunto, West Sumatra in August 2015. The songket carnival featured a parade and exhibition with participants from numbers of songket studios across West Sumatra. The carnival, held on 28 August 2015, was recorded in the Indonesian Museum of Records for the most people wearing songket at a same time, with 17,290 people wearing Silungkang songket during the event.[40]
Several exhibitions has been held to preserve and promote the traditional art of songket making, such as the songket exhibition held in 2015 by Jakarta Textile Museum, which showcased around 100 pieces of songket from various Indonesian provinces.[41]
Today, songket has become a source of inspiration for contemporary fashion designers who draw ideas from this traditional art.[42]
Songket Minangkabau
Songket Minangkabau is a traditional songket woven cloth from West Sumatra that is an important part of cultural identity in the Minangkabau tradition. Songket is closely related to the Minangkabau community because it has been widely used as a material for traditional clothing and other traditional core crafts. There are various types of Minangkabau songket motifs and philosophies, each motif passed down from generation to generation for use in the Pepatih custom.
The history of the Songket Minangkabau itself comes from the Srivijaya which was then developed through the Sumatran kingdom until it finally entered the Minang realm. Songket was created as a means of expression because the Minang people in ancient times could not write and finally they also expressed their feelings into songket so that each songket has a different meaning.
As a characteristic of cloth in Minangkabau, the famous songket cloth in West Sumatra is Songket Pandai Sikek and Songket Silungkang. The names of the two songkets are taken from the name of the place where this songket comes from, namely Pandai Sikek in Tanah Datar and Silungkang in Sawahlunto.
Songket Minangkabau is a unique traditional art form. This weaving art is quite complicated and requires precision and perseverance in the weaving process. In addition, the ornaments or motifs of Minangkabau songket are not just decorations or ornaments. Minangkabau songket motifs or decorations each have a name and meaning, namely about the journey of Minangkabau culture and society. Songket Minangkabau motifs are displayed in the form of natural symbols, especially plants, which are rich in explicit and implied meanings. Songket motifs are often named after plants, animals or objects in the natural environment. For example, Bungo Malur, Kudo-Kudo,Balapak Gadang, Ranggo Patai Pucuak,Pucuak,Pucuak kelapa, and many more. The decorative motifs on the edge of the songket cloth are also named, such as Bungo Tanjung, Lintahu Ayahah, Bareh Diatua, Ula Gerang , and others. Like the motifs of Batik which are full of meaning, the Silungkang songket motifs are also studded with philosophy.
The motif of Kaluak Paku (the curve of a young fern shoot) means "Before correcting others, we should look inside ourselves first". While the Ilalang Rabah motif (falling down) means "Vigilance, prudence and accuracy of a leader are the main things".
The most popular and sacred motif for the Minangkabau community is the Pucuk Rebung motif or in the local language called Pucuak Rabuang symbolizing a useful life throughout. It all appears in the evolution of bamboo shoots (Bambu muda) to aging which reflects the process of human life towards a useful person.[43][44][45]
There are two categories of songket weaving equipments; the main weaving equipment made from wooden or bamboo frame; and the supporting equipment which includes thread stretching tool, motif making tool, thread inserting and picking tools. The materials for making songket consist of cotton or silk threads or other fibers as the base fabric and decoration threads made from golden, silver or silk threads. It is believed that in ancient times, real gold threads were used to create songket; the cotton threads were run along heated liquid gold, coating the cotton and creating gold thread. However today because the scarcity and the expensiveness of real gold threads, imitation gold or silver threads are commonly used instead.
Technique
The songket technique itself involves the insertion of decorative threads in between the wefts as they are woven into the warp, which is fixed to the loom. They are inserted as part of the weaving process, but not necessary in the making of the cloth. There are four types of supplementary weft weaving technique: continuous, discontinuous, inlaid and wrapped.[5]
Songket weaving is done in two stages, weaving the basic cloth with even or plain weaving and weaving the decoration inserted into basic cloth, this method is called "inlay weaving system".[14] The shining gold, silver or silk threads were inserted and woven into the plain weave base cloth in certain motifs, creating a shimmering effect of golden pattern against darker plain background. Songket weaving is traditionally done as a part-time job by young girls and older women in between their daily domestic chores. The complicated process of songket making is believed to cultivate virtues, as it reflects the values of diligence, carefulness and patience.
Patterns
There are hundreds of songket motifs. In Palembang tradition, songket is inseparable from the lives of the people who wear it during important events such as births, marriages, and death.[4] Palembang songket recognises several types of songket patterns; they are lepus, tretes, limar, tawur, bungo, and rumpak songkets.[36] Examples of Palembang songket motifs are naga besaung, pucuk rebung, biji pare, bintang berante, bintang kayu apuy, bungo mawar, bungo melati, bungo cino, bungo jepang, bungo intan, bungo pacik, cantik manis, lepus berakam, pulir, nampan perak, tabur limar and tigo negeri.[14]
In Indonesia, songket is produced in Sumatra, Kalimantan, Bali, Sulawesi, Lombok and Sumbawa. In Sumatra the famous songket production centers is in Minangkabau Pandai Sikek in Tanah Datar Regency,[46] and Koto Gadang in Agam Regency, also Silungkang area in Sawahlunto, West Sumatra,[40]Jambi City, Jambi and Palembang, South Sumatra. In Bali, songket production villages can be found in Klungkung regency, especially at Sidemen and Gelgel village.[47] The Klungkung Market is a popular spot to shop Balinese songket, as it offers wide collection of this traditional fabrics.[35]
While in the neighboring island of Lombok, the Sukarara village in Jonggat district, Central Lombok regency, is also famous for songket making.[48] In this village, learning how to weave a good songket is an obligation for the Sasak women. Weaving songket is usually done by women during their spare time, and subsequently this traditional skill has enabled them to earn money for their family.[49]
A Lombok wedding party using songket. In Lombok, most weddings are held during the month of April, and the parades are held on Sunday, West Nusa Tenggara.
The stage of winding the weaving threads into a place where the spools of thread function as thread for the length of the songket cloth in Sumatra.
Minangkabau men from West Sumatra in traditional dress (songket), 1929.
Shoulder cloth. The entire length of the plaid silk is decorated with gold thread (songket). The edges were decorated with gallons and gold trim, the shoulder cloth was silk with gold thread trimmings in Sumatra, circa 1900 (Tropenmuseum).
Selendang, Long silk scarf from Aceh, Sumatra. The ends are decorated with weft thread from the golden thread (songket) of the ceremonial shawl c.1900.
Songket fabric with keris motif with a bamboo shoot in the middle from West Sumatra, Pucuak rabuang is one of the Minangkabau traditional motifs.
Detail of a songket sarong from Singaraja, the collection of Balique Arts of Indonesia. 1920's.
Terengganu songket, the Limar Songket Bertabur cloth from the 19th century, the collection of Textile Museum, George Washington University.
Palembang is the capital city of the Indonesian province of South Sumatra. The city proper covers 352.51 square kilometres on both banks of the Musi River in the eastern lowlands of southern Sumatra. It had a population of 1,668,848 at the 2020 Census; the official estimate as at mid 2023 was 1,772,492. Palembang is the second most populous city in Sumatra, after Medan, and the twelfth most populous city in Indonesia.
Srivijaya, also spelled Sri Vijaya, was a Hindu-Buddhist thalassocratic empire based on the island of Sumatra that influenced much of Southeast Asia. Srivijaya was an important centre for the expansion of Buddhism from the 7th to 11th century AD. Srivijaya was the first polity to dominate much of western Maritime Southeast Asia. Due to its location, Srivijaya developed complex technology utilizing maritime resources. In addition, its economy became progressively reliant on the booming trade in the region, thus transforming it into a prestige goods-based economy.
South Sumatra is a province of Indonesia, located in the southeast of the island of Sumatra. The capital and largest city of the province is the city of Palembang. The province borders the provinces of Jambi to the north, Bengkulu to the west and Lampung to the south, as well a maritime border with the Bangka Belitung Islands to the east. It is the largest province in the island of Sumatra, and it is slightly smaller than Portugal, the department of Boquerón in Paraguay or the U.S. state of Maine. The Bangka Strait in the east separates South Sumatra and the island of Bangka, which is part of the Bangka Belitung Islands province. The province has an area of 91,592.43 km2 (35,364 sq mi) and had a population of 8,467,432 at the 2020 census; the official estimate as at mid-2023 was 8,743,522. The province is rich in natural resources, such as petroleum, natural gas and coal. The province is inhabited by many different Malay sub ethnic groups, with Palembangese being largest ethnic group. Most speak the Palembang language, which is mutually intelligible to both Indonesian and local Palembang Malay. Other ethnic groups include the Javanese, Sundanese, Minangkabau and Chinese. Most are concentrated in urban areas and are largely immigrants from other parts of Indonesia.
Ikat is a dyeing technique from Southeast Asia used to pattern textiles that employs resist dyeing on the yarns prior to dyeing and weaving the fabric. In Southeast Asia, where it is the most widespread, ikat weaving traditions can be divided into two general groups of related traditions. The first is found among Daic-speaking peoples. The second, larger group is found among the Austronesian peoples and spread via the Austronesian expansion to as far as Madagascar. It is most prominently associated with the textile traditions of Indonesia in modern times, from where the term ikat originates. Similar unrelated dyeing and weaving techniques that developed independently are also present in other regions of the world, including India, Central Asia, Japan, Africa, and the Americas.
A kebaya is an upper garment traditionally worn by women in Southeast Asia, notably in Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, and Southern Thailand. It is also worn in parts of southern Philippines
Tanah Datar Regency is a landlocked regency (kabupaten) in West Sumatra province, Indonesia. The regency has an area of 1,337.1 km2 and had a population of 338,484 at the 2010 Census, which rose to 371,704 at the 2020 Census. The official estimate as of mid-2023 was 383,676 - comprising 193,190 males and 190,490 females. The regency seat is the town of Batusangkar. The city of Padang Panjang is also geographically located within the regency but constitutes a municipality of its own.
The Melayu Kingdom was a classical Buddhist kingdom located in what is now the Indonesian province of West Sumatra and Jambi.
In India, about 97% of the raw mulberry silk is produced in the Indian states of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal. Mysore and North Bangalore, the upcoming site of a US$20 million "Silk City", contribute to a majority of silk production. Another emerging silk producer is Tamil Nadu in the place in where mulberry cultivation is concentrated in Salem, Erode and Dharmapuri districts. Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh and Gobichettipalayam, Tamil Nadu were the first locations to have automated silk reeling units.
Brocade is a class of richly decorative shuttle-woven fabrics, often made in coloured silks and sometimes with gold and silver threads. The name, related to the same root as the word "broccoli", comes from Italian broccato meaning 'embossed cloth', originally past participle of the verb broccare 'to stud, set with nails', from brocco, 'small nail', from Latin broccus, 'projecting, pointed'.
Tenun Pahang Diraja is a type of woven silk fabric which is famous and popular in the state of Pahang, Malaysia.
Tapis is a traditional Tenun style and also refers to resulting cloth that originated from Lampung, Indonesia. It consists of a striped, naturally-coloured cloth embroidered with warped and couched gold thread. Traditionally using floral motifs, it has numerous variations. It is generally worn ceremonially, although it can be used as a decoration. It is considered one of the symbols of Lampung and Lampungese.
Baju Kurung is a traditional attire of Malays and traditionally worn by women in Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore and southern Thailand. This type of traditional attire is the national dress of Brunei and Malaysia. In Indonesia, this dress is also worn as a regional attire, commonly observed on the island of Sumatra, particularly by the ethnic Malay and Minangkabau women.
The national costume of Indonesia is the national attire that represents the Republic of Indonesia. It is derived from Indonesian culture and Indonesian traditional textile traditions. Today the most widely recognized Indonesian national attires include batik and kebaya, although originally those attires mainly belong within the island of Java and Bali, most prominently within Javanese, Sundanese and Balinese culture. Since Java has been the political and population center of Indonesia, folk attire from the island has become elevated into national status.
Balinese textiles are reflective of the historical traditions of Bali, Indonesia. Bali has been historically linked to the major courts of Java before the 10th century; and following the defeat of the Majapahit kingdom, many of the Javanese aristocracy fled to Bali and the traditions were continued. Bali therefore may be seen as a repository not only of its own arts but those of Java in the pre-Islamic 15th century. Any attempt to definitively describe Balinese textiles and their use is doomed to be incomplete. The use of textile is a living tradition and so is in constant change. It will also vary from one district to another. For the most part old cloth are not venerated for their age. New is much better. In the tropics cloth rapidly deteriorates and so virtue is generated by replacing them.
Tengkolok, also known as Tanjak, Destar is a traditional Malay or Indonesian and male headgear. It is made from long songket cloth folded and tied in a particular style (solek). Nowadays, it is usually worn in ceremonial functions, such as royal ceremonies by royalties, and wedding ceremonies by grooms.
Balaputradeva Museum, officially the State Museum of South Sumatra Province "Balaputradeva", is an ethnographic museum located in Southern Sumatra's capital Palembang. The museum is the state museum of the Province of South Sumatra. The name Balaputradeva is derived from Balaputra, a 9th century sovereign of Srivijaya kingdom and the former head of the Sailendra dynasty whose main center was located in the vicinity of Palembang. Balaputradeva Museum displays the history and traditions of the province of South Sumatra.
Minangkabau culture is the culture of the Minangkabau ethnic group in Indonesia, part of the Indonesian culture. This culture is one of the two major cultures in the Indonesian archipelago which is very prominent and influential.
Tenun is an artful Indonesian technique of making a fabric by weaving different colours of threads. Tenun belongs to one of the typical Indonesian cultural arts produced by hand skills using traditional looms. The word Tenun itself has a high meaning, historical value, and technique in terms of colors, motifs, and types of materials and threads used and each region has its own characteristics. In addition, Tenun is also one of Indonesia's original cultural heritages that is still maintained and preserved to this day.
Marawa is a tricolour flag that consists of three vertical charts that feature the colours of the Minangkabau culture: black, red, and gold. It is not known for sure when this flag was first used, but it was officially adopted as the flag of the Pagaruyung Kingdom since its founding in 1347. This flag was also adopted by other kingdoms of the Minangkabau rantau such as the Inderapura Kingdom. A derivative of the flag is also currently used by Negeri Sembilan, a state in Malaysia with historical and cultural connections with the kingdom.
Seting clothes and Cual cloth are traditional clothes from the Bangka Belitung Islands in Indonesia. Cual cloth has similarities with songket cloth, which is typical of Palembang, as both are quite complicated and take a long time to produce. Due to its long production time, Cual cloth is often expensive and is associated with traditional royal clothing, weddings and various other major events. At large events, the Cual Cloth is paired with the Seting Shirt. Cual cloth is a cloth native to the Bangka Belitung culture which is made using the traditional ikat weaving method.
↑ Diaz, Anton (2009). "Songket Palembang, Busana dan Aksesori Nusantara". National Geographic Traveller Indonesia (in Indonesian). Vol.1, no.6. Jakarta, Indonesia. p.63.
↑ Siti Norkhalbi Haji Wahsalfelah (3–5 Dec 2007). Tamadun Brunei dan Kewujudan Seni Tenun. Seminar Sejarah Borneo, Pemeliharaan Sejarah Borneo dan Tamadun Borneo: Ke Arah Pengukuhan Negara Bangsa (in Malay). Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei Darussalam. doi:10.13140/2.1.4659.1363.
↑ Poesponegoro, Marwati Djoened; Notosusanto, Nugroho. (2008). Sejarah Nasional Indonesia II: Zaman Kuno. Jakarta: Balai Pustaka.
1 2 Pullen, Lesley S (2021). Patterned Splendour: Textiles Presented on Javanese Metal and Stone Sculptures, Eighth to Fifteenth Centuries. Singapore: ISEAS-Yusof Ishak Institute. ISBN9789814881852.
↑ bin Ismail, Zani (2004). Rampaian seni Terengganu: songket, tarian piring, mandi sapat, silat kura-kura (in Malay). Jabatan Kebudayaan, Kesenian dan Warisan, Negeri Terengganu. ISBN9832579023.
1 2 Uchino, Megumi (July 2005). "Socio-cultural history of Palembang Songket". Indonesia and the Malay World. 33 (96). Routledge: 205–223. doi:10.1080/13639810500283985. S2CID143749412.
↑ Suardana, Kartika (2009). "Songket Bali, Busana dan Aksesori Nusantara". National Geographic Traveller Indonesia (in Indonesian). Vol.1, no.6. Jakarta, Indonesia. p.62.
↑ Ukirsari, Manggalani L. (2009). "Songket Lombok, Busana dan Aksesori Nusantara". National Geographic Traveller Indonesia (in Indonesian). Vol.1, no.6. Jakarta, Indonesia. p.62.
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