Abacá Musa textilis | |
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At the United States Botanic Garden | |
Scientific classification | |
Kingdom: | Plantae |
Clade: | Tracheophytes |
Clade: | Angiosperms |
Clade: | Monocots |
Clade: | Commelinids |
Order: | Zingiberales |
Family: | Musaceae |
Genus: | Musa |
Section: | Musa sect. Callimusa |
Species: | M. textilis |
Binomial name | |
Musa textilis | |
Synonyms [1] | |
Abacá (Spanish) ( /ɑːbəˈkɑː/ ah-bə-KAH; Filipino : Abaka [ɐbɐˈka] ), Musa textilis, is a species of banana endemic to the Philippines. The plant grows to 13–22 feet (4.0–6.7 m), and averages about 12 feet (3.7 m). The plant, also known as Manila hemp, has great economic importance, being harvested for its fiber, also called Manila hemp, extracted from the leaf-stems. [4] [5] [6]
The lustrous fiber is traditionally hand-loomed into various indigenous textiles (abaca cloth or medriñaque) in the Philippines. They still figure prominently as the traditional material of the barong tagalog, the national male attire of the Philippines, as well as in sheer lace-like fabrics called nipis used in various clothing components. Native abaca textiles also survive into the modern era among various ethnic groups, like the t'nalak of the T'boli people and the dagmay of the Bagobo people. Abaca is also used in traditional Philippine millinery, as well as for bags, shawls, and other decorative items. The hatmaking straw made from Manila hemp is called tagal or tagal straw. [7] [8]
The fiber is also exceptionally strong, stronger than hemp and naturally salt-resistant, making it ideal for making twines and ropes (especially for maritime shipping). It became a major trade commodity in the colonial era for this reason. [9] The abaca industry declined sharply in the mid-20th century when abaca plantations were decimated by World War II and plant diseases, as well as the invention of nylon in the 1930s (which eventually replaced the use of abacá in maritime cordage). Today, abaca is mostly used in a variety of specialized paper products including tea bags, filter paper and banknotes. Manila envelopes and Manila paper derive their name from this fiber. [4] [6]
Abaca is classified as a hard fiber, along with coir, henequin and sisal. Abaca is grown as a commercial crop in the Philippines, Ecuador, Costa Rica.
The abacá plant is stoloniferous, meaning that the plant produces runners or shoots along the ground that then root at each segment. [2] Cutting and transplanting rooted runners is the primary technique for creating new plants, since seed growth is substantially slower. [nb 1] [11] Abacá has a "false trunk" or pseudostem about 6–15 inches (15–38 cm) in diameter. [2] The leaf stalks (petioles) are expanded at the base to form sheaths that are tightly wrapped together to form the pseudostem. There are from 12 to 25 leaves, dark green on the top and pale green on the underside, sometimes with large brown patches. They are oblong in shape with a deltoid base. [2] They grow in succession. The petioles grow to at least 1 foot (30 cm) in length. [2]
When the plant is mature, the flower stalk grows up inside the pseudostem. The male flower has five petals, each about 1.5 inches (3.8 cm) long. [2] The leaf sheaths contain the valuable fiber. After harvesting, the coarse fibers range in length from 6–12 feet (180–370 cm) long. [2] They are composed primarily of cellulose, lignin, and pectin.
The fruit, which is inedible [2] and is rarely seen as harvesting occurs before the plant fruits, grows to about 2–3 inches (5.1–7.6 cm) in length and 1 inch (2.5 cm) in diameter. [2] It has black turbinate seeds that are 0.167 inches (0.42 cm) in diameter. [2]
The abacá plant belongs to the banana family, Musaceae; it resembles the closely related wild seeded bananas, Musa acuminata and Musa balbisiana . Its scientific name is Musa textilis. Within the genus Musa , it is placed in section Callimusa (now including the former section Australimusa), members of which have a diploid chromosome number of 2n = 20. [12]
The Philippines, especially the Bicol region in Luzon, has the most abaca genotypes and cultivars. Genetic analysis using simple sequence repeats (SSR) markers revealed that the Philippines' abaca germplasm is genetically diverse. [13] Abaca genotypes in Luzon had higher genetic diversity than Visayas and Mindanao. [13] Ninety-five (95) percent was attributed to molecular variance within the population, and only 5% of the molecular variance to variation among populations. [13] Genetic analysis by Unweighted Pair Group Method with Arithmetic Mean (UPGMA) revealed several clusters irrespective of geographical origin. [13]
Before synthetic textiles came into use, M. textilis was a major source of high quality fiber: soft, silky and fine. [14] Ancestors of the modern abacá are thought to have originated from the eastern Philippines, where there is significant rainfall throughout the year. Wild varieties of abacá can still be found in the interior forests of the island province of Catanduanes, away from cultivated areas.
Today, Catanduanes has many other modern kinds of abacá which are more competitive. For many years, breeders from various research institutions have made the cultivated varieties of Catanduanes even more competitive in local and international markets. This results in the optimum production of the island which had a consistent highest production throughout the archipelago.[ citation needed ]
Europeans first came into contact with Abacá fibre when Ferdinand Magellan landed in the Philippines in 1521, as the natives were already cultivating it and utilizing it in bulk for textiles. [11] Throughout the Spanish colonial era, it was referred to as "medriñaque" cloth. [16]
By 1897, the Philippines were exporting almost 100,000 tons of abacá, [10] and it was one of the three biggest cash crops, along with tobacco and sugar. [17] In fact, from 1850 through the end of the 19th century, sugar or abacá alternated with each other as the biggest export crop of the Philippines. [17] This 19th-century trade was predominantly with the United States and the making of ropes was done mainly in New England, although in time rope-making shifted back to the Philippines. [17]
From 1898 to 1946, the United States colonized the Philippines following the Spanish-American War. The Guggenheim claims the "colonial government found ways to prevent Filipinos from profiting off of the abaca crops, instead favoring the businesses of American expats and Japanese immigrants, as well as ensuring that the bulk of the abaca harvests were exported to the United States" for use in military initiatives. [18]
In the early 1900s, a train running from Danao to Argao would transport Philippine abacá from the plantations to Cebu City for export. [19] The railway system was destroyed during World War II; the abaca continues to be transported to Cebu by road. [20]
Excluding the Philippines, abacá was first cultivated on a large scale in Sumatra in 1925 under the Dutch, who had observed its cultivation in the Philippines for cordage since the nineteenth century, followed up by plantings in Central America in 1929 sponsored by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. [21] It also was transplanted into India and Guam. [11] Commercial planting began in 1930 in British North Borneo; at the onset of World War II, the supply from the Philippines was eliminated by the Empire of Japan. [21]
After the war, the U.S. Department of Agriculture started production in Panama, Costa Rica, Honduras, and Guatemala. [11]
Today, abacá is produced primarily in the Philippines and Ecuador. [22] The Philippines produces between 85% [23] and 95% [11] of the world's abacá, and the production employs 1.5 million people. Production has declined because of virus diseases. [23]
The plant is normally grown in well-drained loamy soil, using rhizomes planted at the start of the rainy season. [21] In addition, new plants can be started by seeds. [24] Growers harvest abacá fields every three to eight months after an initial growth period of 12–25 months. [2] [21] Harvesting is done by removing the leaf-stems after flowering but before fruit appears. [2] The plant loses productivity between 15 and 40 years. [25] The slopes of volcanoes provide a preferred growing environment. [26] Harvesting generally includes several operations involving the leaf sheaths:
When the processing is complete, the bundles of fiber are pale and lustrous with a length of 6–12 feet (1.8–3.7 m). [24]
In Costa Rica, more modern harvest and drying techniques are being developed to accommodate the very high yields obtained there.
According to the Philippine Fiber Industry Development Authority, the Philippines provided 87.4% of the world's abacá in 2014, earning the Philippines US$111.33 million. [29] The demand is still greater than the supply. [29] The remainder came from Ecuador (12.5%) and Costa Rica (0.1%). [29] The Bicol region in the Philippines produced 27,885 metric tons of abacá in 2014, the largest of any Philippine region. [29]
The Philippine Rural Development Program (PRDP) and the Department of Agriculture reported that in 2009–2013, Bicol Region had 39% share of Philippine abacá production while overwhelming 92% comes from Catanduanes Island. Eastern Visayas, the second largest producer had 24% and the Davao Region, the third largest producer had 11% of the total production. Around 42 percent of the total abacá fiber shipments from the Philippines went to the United Kingdom in 2014, making it the top importer. [29] Germany imported 37.1 percent abacá pulp from the Philippines, importing around 7,755 metric tons (MT). [29] Sales of abacá cordage surged 20 percent in 2014 to a total of 5,093 MT from 4,240 MT, with the United States holding around 68 percent of the market. [29]
Abacá is vulnerable to a number of pathogens, notably abaca bunchy top virus, abaca bract mosaic virus, [23] and abaca mosaic virus. [30]
Due to its strength, it is a sought after product and is the strongest of the natural fibers. [11] It is used by the paper industry for such specialty uses such as tea bags, banknotes [31] and decorative papers. [11] It can be used to make handcrafts such as hats, [32] bags, carpets, clothing and furniture.
Lupis is the finest quality of abacá. [33] Sinamay is woven chiefly from abacá. [34]
Abacá fibers were traditionally woven into sturdy textiles and clothing in the Philippines since pre-colonial times. Along with cotton, they were the main source of textile fibers used for clothing in the pre-colonial Philippines. Abacá cloth was often compared to calico in terms of texture and was a major trade commodity in the pre-colonial maritime trade and the Spanish colonial era. [35] [36] There are multiple traditional types and names of abaca cloth among the different ethnic groups of the Philippines. Undyed plain abacá cloth, woven from fine fibers of abaca, is generally known as sinamáy in most of the islands. Abacá cloth with a more delicate texture is called tinampipi. While especially fine lace-like abacá cloth is called nipis or lupis. Fine abacá fibers may also be woven with piña , silk, or fine cotton to create a fabric called jusi. [6]
Traditional abacá textiles were often dyed in various colors from various natural dyes. These include blue from indigo (tarum, dagum, tayum, etc.); black from ebony (knalum or batulinao) leaves; red from noni roots and sapang ; yellow from turmeric (kalawag, kuning, etc.); and so on. They were often woven into specific patterns, and further ornamented with embroidery, beadwork, and other decorations. [37] [6] Most clothing made from abacá took the form of the baro (also barú or bayú, literally "shirt" or "clothing"), a simple collar-less shirt or jacket with close-fitting long sleeves worn by both men and women in most ethnic groups in the pre-colonial Philippines. These were paired with wraparound sarong-like skirts (for both men and women), close-fitting pants, or loincloths ( bahag ). [6] [38] [39]
During the Spanish colonial era, abacá cloth became known as medriñaque in Spanish (apparently derived from a native Cebuano name). They were exported to other Spanish colonies since the 16th century. A waistcoat of a native Quechua man in Peru was recorded as being made of medriñaque as early as 1584. Abacá cloth also appear in English records, spelled variously as medrinacks, medrianacks, medrianackes, and medrinacles, among other names. They were used as canvas for sails and for stiffening clothing like skirts, collars, and doublets. [6] [35] [40]
Philippine indigenous tribes still weave abacá-based textiles like t'nalak , made by the Tiboli tribe of South Cotabato, and dagmay, made by the Bagobo people. [41] Abacá cloth is found in museum collections around the world, like the Boston Museum of Fine Arts and the Textile Museum of Canada. [42]
The inner fibers are also used in the making of hats, including the "Manila hats", hammocks, matting, cordage, ropes, coarse twines, and types of canvas. [42] [43]
Manila rope is a type of rope made from manila hemp. Manila rope is very durable, flexible, and resistant to salt water damage, allowing its use in rope, hawsers, ships' lines, and fishing nets. [21] A 1 inch (2.5 cm) rope can require 4 metric tons (8,800 lb) to break. [26]
Manila ropes shrink when they become wet. This effect can be advantageous under certain circumstances, but if it is not a wanted feature, it should be well taken into account. Since shrinkage is more pronounced the first time the rope becomes wet, new rope is usually immersed into water and put to dry before use so that the shrinkage is less than it would be if the rope had never been wet. A major disadvantage in this shrinkage is that many knots made with manila rope became harder and more difficult to untie when wet, thus becoming subject of increased stress. Manila rope will rot after a period of time when exposed to saltwater.
Manila hemp rope was previously the favoured variety of rope used for executions by hanging, both in the U.K. and USA. Usually 3/4 to 1 inch diameter, boiled prior to use to take out any overelasticity. It was also used in the 19th century as whaling line. [46] Abacá fiber was once used primarily for rope, but this application is now of minor significance.
Tagal.
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: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)Textile is an umbrella term that includes various fiber-based materials, including fibers, yarns, filaments, threads, different fabric types, etc. At first, the word "textiles" only referred to woven fabrics. However, weaving is not the only manufacturing method, and many other methods were later developed to form textile structures based on their intended use. Knitting and non-woven are other popular types of fabric manufacturing. In the contemporary world, textiles satisfy the material needs for versatile applications, from simple daily clothing to bulletproof jackets, spacesuits, and doctor's gowns.
Weaving is a method of textile production in which two distinct sets of yarns or threads are interlaced at right angles to form a fabric or cloth. Other methods are knitting, crocheting, felting, and braiding or plaiting. The longitudinal threads are called the warp and the lateral threads are the weft, woof, or filling. The method in which these threads are interwoven affects the characteristics of the cloth. Cloth is usually woven on a loom, a device that holds the warp threads in place while filling threads are woven through them. A fabric band that meets this definition of cloth can also be made using other methods, including tablet weaving, back strap loom, or other techniques that can be done without looms.
Linen is a textile made from the fibers of the flax plant.
Catanduanes, officially the Province of Catanduanes, is an island province located in the Bicol Region of Luzon in the Philippines. It is the 12th-largest island in the Philippines, and lies to the east of Camarines Sur, across the Maqueda Channel. Its capital is Virac. It had a population of 271,879 people as of the 2020 census.
Fiber crops are field crops grown for their fibers, which are traditionally used to make paper, cloth, or rope.
Hemp, or industrial hemp, is a plant in the botanical class of Cannabis sativa cultivars grown specifically for industrial and consumable use. It can be used to make a wide range of products. Along with bamboo, hemp is among the fastest growing plants on Earth. It was also one of the first plants to be spun into usable fiber 50,000 years ago. It can be refined into a variety of commercial items, including paper, rope, textiles, clothing, biodegradable plastics, paint, insulation, biofuel, food, and animal feed.
Sibagat, officially the Municipality of Sibagat, is a 1st class municipality in the province of Agusan del Sur, Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a population of 33,957 people.
The barong tagalog, more commonly known simply as barong, is an embroidered long-sleeved formal shirt for men and a national dress of the Philippines. Barong tagalog combines elements from both the precolonial native Filipino and colonial Spanish clothing styles. It is traditionally made with sheer textiles (nipis) woven from piña or abacá; although in modern times, cheaper materials like organza silk, ramie or polyester are also used.
A manila folder is a file folder designed to contain documents, often within a filing cabinet. It is generally formed by folding a large sheet of stiff card in half. Though traditionally buff, sometimes other colors are used to differentiate categories of files.
Manila paper is a relatively inexpensive type of paper, generally made through a less-refined process than other types of paper, and is typically made from semi-bleached wood fibers.
Piña is a traditional Philippine fiber made from the leaves of the pineapple plant. Pineapples are indigenous to South America but have been widely cultivated in the Philippines since the 17th century, and used for weaving lustrous lace-like luxury textiles known as nipis fabric. The name is derived from Spanish piña, meaning "pineapple".
The manufacture of textiles is one of the oldest of human technologies. To make textiles, the first requirement is a source of fiber from which a yarn can be made, primarily by spinning. The yarn is processed by knitting or weaving, which turns yarn into cloth. The machine used for weaving is the loom. For decoration, the process of colouring yarn or the finished material is dyeing. For more information of the various steps, see textile manufacturing.
The United Nations General Assembly declared 2009 as the International Year of Natural Fibres (IYNF), as well as the International Year of Astronomy.
The study of the history of clothing and textiles traces the development, use, and availability of clothing and textiles over human history. Clothing and textiles reflect the materials and technologies available in different civilizations at different times. The variety and distribution of clothing and textiles within a society reveal social customs and culture.
Musa basjoo, known variously as Japanese banana, Japanese fibre banana or hardy banana, is a species of flowering plant belonging to the banana family Musaceae. It was previously thought to have originated in the Ryukyu islands of southern Japan, from where it was first described in cultivation, but is now known to have originated in subtropical southern China, where it is also widely cultivated, with wild populations found in Sichuan province. Its specific name is derived from its Japanese common name, bashō (芭蕉).
Tnalak, is a weaving tradition of the Tboli people of South Cotabato, Philippines. T'nalak cloth is woven exclusively by women who have received the designs for the weave in their dreams, which they believe are a gift from Fu Dalu, the T'boli Goddess of abacá.
Kijōka-bashōfu (喜如嘉の芭蕉布) is the Japanese craft of making cloth from the bashō or Japanese fibre banana as practiced in Kijōka in Ogimi, Okinawa. Like linen, hemp, ramie and other long vegetable fibres, it does not stick to the skin in hot weather; as such it is suitable for the climate of Okinawa. Kijōka-bashōfu is recognized as one of the Important Intangible Cultural Properties of Japan.
Abaca bunchy top virus (ABTV) is a pathogenic plant virus of the family Nanoviridae. ABTV has been isolated from both abacá (Musa textilis) and banana (Musa sp.). ABTV has many similarities to banana bunchy top virus (BBTV) but is both genetically and serologically distinct in that it lacks two open reading frames found in BBTV's genome. ATBV's genome contains six circular components, each of which are 1,000-1,500 base pairs in length.
Leaf fibers or hard fibers are a type of plant fiber mainly used for cordage. They are the toughest of the plant fibers which is most likely due to their increased lignin content when compared to the other groups of plant fibers. They are typically characterized as being very tough and rigid lending them towards being used in rope production over clothing or paper like other plant fibers.
Bananatex is a natural cellulosic biodegradable "technical" canvas fabric made of Abacá banana plant fibres. The plants are grown in the Philippines as part of a sustainable forestry project in Catanduanes. Bananatex was developed and is distributed by the Swiss canvas goods company QWSTION and is used in the company's own products as well as in other companies' manufactured goods. Bananatex was developed to have better wear characteristics than cotton while being more sustainable. It is less durable than synthetics like Cordura, and can biodegrade. Bananatex is sold in a range of colours and is available with or without a natural beeswax waterproof coating.
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