Haircloth

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Horsehair crinoline, 1840s (MET) Horsehair petticoat MET CI43.126.26 F.jpg
Horsehair crinoline, 1840s (MET)

Haircloth is commonly understood as a stiff, unsupple fabric made from coarse fibre from camelids, bovines, horses, goats, rabbits, hares and reindeers. [1] However, a softer variation is valued in the textile and fashion industries for their rarity, aesthetics and comfort. This is because there are two types of hair used in making haircloth; a rougher outer “guard coat”, and a softer undercoat. [2] The outer coats are used in coarse fabrics, often applied to upholstery, carpets, underskirts and hairshirts, or cilices, while "luxury fabrics" use the softer undercoat. [2]

Contents

Description

Haircloth is woven or knitted with fibres of uncommon animal varieties, including the following:

  1. Mohair from the Angora goat, originating from Turkey. [1] [2]
  2. Cashmere comes from the Himalayan cashmere goat of Central and Southwestern Asia. [1] It is mostly produced in China, and is a popular Scottish knitting yarn. [1] Cashmere from the Indian sub-continent is referred to as Pashmina. [2] The fibres of Pashmina come from Changthangi goats of Jammu and Kashmir, in Leh and Ladakh. [2]
  3. Cashgora, a mix of Cashmere and Angora fibres, produced mainly in New Zealand. [1]
  4. Pygora, a mix of the Pygmy and Angora goat, raised for hand-spinning in Dalla, Canada. [1]
  5. Angora silk comes from the Angora rabbit, also known as "silk Rabbits", from Ankara, Turkey. It is farmed in France, England, Germany and China for its hair. [3]
    Vicuna (Vicugna vicugna) in Peru. Vicunacrop.jpg
    Vicuña (Vicugna vicugna) in Peru.
  6. Common Goat hair produced mainly in Greece and Argentina. [1]
  7. Reindeer hair from Scandinavia, [1]
  8. Chiengora, or dog hair is being explored as an alternative fibre for sustainable fashion. [1] [4] [5] However, due to inefficient procurement and production methods, the fibre has yet to be adopted industrially. [4] [5]
  9. Vicuña comes from the fur of a South American Camelid, the vicuña. It’s fibre is soft and insulating but short and difficult to procure. [1] It's rarity is reflected in the price of its wool and yarn.

Other sources of hair for "haircloth" include bovines; namely, Yak, produced in Manchuria, Nepal and India, Bison, Musk Ox— also known by its Eskimo name "qiviut". [1] Camelids which are farmed for their hair include Guanaco, Llama and Alpacca and camels. [1] Such hair fibres show a convergence in chemical composition, namely in the presence of α-keratin proteins and amino acids, among which Cashmere, wool and Mohair are most similar. [6] Climatic differences and nutrient availability in the habitats of each source animal defines minute differences in the chemical structure of their hair. [6] These structures define the quality of the resulting fibres’ much desired lustre and downiness. [1]

Uses

Korean, Jeongjagwan hat made from Horsehair, 19th century. Brooklyn Museum, Brooklyn Museum Collection. Korean horsehair hat.jpeg
Korean, Jeongjagwan hat made from Horsehair, 19th century. Brooklyn Museum, Brooklyn Museum Collection.

Textiles from horse-tail hair are used in upholstery fabric, light hairs being reserved for dyes and black being used as is for their distinctive natural hue. [7] Hair cloth has also been used in the panels of men's suit jackets. [8] The wearing of haircloth was often also associated with the poverty and religious ascetism. [9] [10] There are suggestions that woven tent coverings of black goat hair were used in the 1st century C.E. in Cilicium, Turkey. [9] Human hair has been woven in fabrics of ancestral worship [11] and, as woven mats, suggested as possible solutions to water pollution. However, it has also been used to dehumanise communities in times of war. During the Holocaust of World War II, the hair of Polish Jews in Auschwitz were used by the SS in the manufacture of coarse fabrics. [12]

Yashmak veil with a gold embroidered brow strap, 20th century. Produced in Egypt. Auckland Museum Collection. Yasmak (AM 612782-1).jpg
Yashmak veil with a gold embroidered brow strap, 20th century. Produced in Egypt. Auckland Museum Collection.

Suit construction

In tailoring applications, haircloth is woven using cotton warp and horsehair weft. [13] In traditional suit construction, haircloth is used to stiffen the front panels in men's suit jackets, and Savile Row tailors still make bespoke suits this way. [14] However, in modern suits, haircloth is often replaced with synthetic fabrics. [15]

Horse hair veils

Horse hair veils, known as burqa , were worn by women from the Persian Gulf in the late 19th century. [16] This fashion trend then spread among the women of Afghanistan through wives of the upper-classes. [17] A similar fashion is seen in Istanbul, Turkey, peche and lisam of the 16th century, and the yashmak of the 17th and 18th are also made of horsehair. [17] Literary works and illustrations recorded as early as the 12th century reveal a longer tradition of this haircloth veil culture in Iran. [17]

Hair-skirts

Hair-skirts are undergarments worn as support under dresses and skirts by exploiting the stiffness of haircloth. Horsehair underskirts, known as Mamigun, or Maweiqun , were worn by entertainers, military officials, upper class and  civil servants in Ming Dynasty China. [18] This is attributed to the influences of a shared cultural sphere between Joseon Korea and Jiangnan established through lesser known trade routes. [18] "Hair cloth" also referred to crinolines, or "crinoline cloth", in mid 19th century Europe as it was woven with linen to add volume and shape to ladies' skirts. [7] A smaller, lesser known version of this known as the tournoure, or a "crinolette", used in the 1880s, was occasionally also made of stiff haircloth. [19]

Horse-hair sieves

From Frankfurt am Main, Germany. A man weaving the wooden frame of a sieve. Jost Amman and Hans Sachs, 16th century. Sieber-1568.png
From Frankfurt am Main, Germany. A man weaving the wooden frame of a sieve. Jost Amman and Hans Sachs, 16th century.

In Scandinavia, central Europe and Asia, horsehair sieves were crafted by common folk of Sweden, Slovenia and Japan. In Škofja Loka, this was exported to the rest of Continental Europe, Africa and Asia minor. [20] When the sieve trade saw a gradual decline in the late 19th century, horse fibres began to be used instead in tapestries. [20] In Japan, hydrated horsehair sieves are used to sift paste in traditional cooking. It is labelled loosely today as nori-koshi (“paste filter”), but is most often known as koshiki (漉し器) or uragoshi (裏漉し), with many names depending on the region in question. [21]

Haircloth mats

In 19th century Northern England, haircloth was employed in the drying of malt for brewing in place of perforated metals which would scorch the grain. [22] It would be spread over the kiln floor to keep grain from dropping down into the furnace. [22]

The rugs of the Darxad people of Northern Mongolia are an exception which use goathair despite difficulties in processing the fibre. This is likely due to influences of the neighbouring Tukic Oirad group. [23] Hair is woven into thick threads which are then braided into blankets due to the insulating properties provided by the coarse knotting resulting from its manufacturing process. [23] Another type of haircloth is the sack-like woven cloth from camel hair, “Ba. örmög”, traditionally used for rice sacks. [23] However, the production method for these cloths have been largely forgotten.

Hairshirts, religion and devotion

The roughness of coarse hair textiles often associated it with devotion, and religious ascetism. In European Christian tradition, a cilice of haircloth was worn as a show of penitence. [24] The textile was also used as banners, altar covers and girdles. [24] Worn as an undergarment closest to the skin, it appears in some French medieval literature as embodied garments of sexuality and romantic devotion. [25] The rough was used as bedspreads as a show of devotion in Gaul between the 5th and 9th centuries. [26]

Paracas embroidered plain weave of camelid hair with needle-knitted border, c. 2nd to 1st century BCE. Honolulu Museum of Art. Photograph by Hiart Archaeological fragments from Paracas, Peru, Honolulu Museum of Art 4181.1.JPG
Paracas embroidered plain weave of camelid hair with needle-knitted border, c. 2nd to 1st century BCE. Honolulu Museum of Art. Photograph by Hiart

History and archeology

Haircloth has been made and used since prehistory. Woven cloths, especially from goat, camel and horse fibres have been found in archeological sites around the world dating from the 8th century B.C.E. to the 15th century C.E..

Paracas textiles

Elaborate, brightly woven tapestries of vicuña, llama, human hair textiles were found at the Cavernas archeological dig-site of Paracas, Peru, in 1925, by Julio C. Tello. [11] These haircloths are believed to be devotional artefacts carbon dated to approximately 200 B.C. E to 100C.E.. [11] They belonged from an agrarian community who partook in ancestral worship, dubbed the Paracas community. [11] They were used to wrap the bodies of the deceased community, most of whom are presumed to be priests or leaders of the commune. [11]

Europe

Reconstruction of hairnet from Skrydstrup grave. Bronze Age. Haderslev museum, Denmark. Haarnetzrekonstruktion Skrydstrup.jpg
Reconstruction of hairnet from Skrydstrup grave. Bronze Age. Haderslev museum, Denmark.

Goat and mustelid hair was common in Medieval England. A woollen twill dating to the late 12th century and one cloth and four pile-woven mats of coarse goat hair, dating to the 15th and 13th centuries respectively, were found at medieval riverside embankments at Billingsgate Lorry Park, along the Lower Thames Street in 1982 and 1983. [27]

In Hallsatt, Germany, belts of braided horsehair and wool have been found at an early Iron Age site, La Tène. This belt was woven ensure flexibility along its length, but rigidity along its width. [28] In Skrydstrup, Denmark, a horse-hair net was found on a woman in a tree coffin from the 8th century BCE. [28] In Hochdorf, Switzerland, soft badger hair was used for a chieftain’s overcoat, found in a grave dating to the 5th century BCE. [28]

Process

Procurement

Depending on the source and location of production, methods of procurement would differ. Goathair is often simply sheared or trimmed like wool. Reindeer hair can be sheared, but is also produced in the processing of the animal's fur. [1] Haircloth making procedures are similar to those of wool. [1]  Chiengora can be obtained from pet salons post-grooming. [4] [5] The longer, stiffer guard coat is then separated from the softer undercoat by a process known as de-hairing. [5]

Spinning

The thread is made if necessary before the cloth is produced by weaving, braiding or knitting. However, the smoothness of fibres cause difficulties in spinning processes or hair threads. To circumvent this, hairs are often mixed with other materials, [1] [23] or spun into thicker threads and yarns as in medieval London, resulting in a coarser texture. [29] In Europe spinning was done with hooked shuttles, and in areas such as Mongolia and Arabia, it is done by hand and spindle. [27] The Arab Bedouin women spin threads by hand, turning the spindle in one arm, while the other rolls the hair against their thigh to make a yarn. [27]

Production

In Europe, damask cloth is made by threading the hairs into their warp with a hooked shuttle on a loom. [7] Hairs used in weaving, if not first processed into yarn, tend to be shorter than required, and often require extensions by knotting and adding an adhesive to create a continuous weft. [7] [30] In Medieval London, the weaving and extending was often done by the weaver and his assistant respectively. [7] Meanwhile, Mongolian haircloth can be braided with Kh.zoos širees, or “coin table”, where each thread is weighted equally by Chinese coppers to prevent warping of braids. [23] Sometimes certain threads are more lightly weighted to create an intentional warping. [23] The Da.danz is made by alternating weft threads on a circular warp, wound around a board from which the finished work will hang. [23]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wool</span> Textile fiber from the hair of sheep or other mammals

Wool is the textile fiber obtained from sheep and other mammals, especially goats, rabbits, and camelids. The term may also refer to inorganic materials, such as mineral wool and glass wool, that have some properties similar to animal wool.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Textile</span> Various fiber-based materials

Textile is an umbrella term that includes various fiber-based materials, including fibers, yarns, filaments, threads, different fabric types, etc. At first, the word "textiles" only referred to woven fabrics. However, weaving is not the only manufacturing method, and many other methods were later developed to form textile structures based on their intended use. Knitting and non-woven are other popular types of fabric manufacturing. In the contemporary world, textiles satisfy the material needs for versatile applications, from simple daily clothing to bulletproof jackets, spacesuits, and doctor's gowns.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Weaving</span> Technology for the production of textiles

Weaving is a method of textile production in which two distinct sets of yarns or threads are interlaced at right angles to form a fabric or cloth. Other methods are knitting, crocheting, felting, and braiding or plaiting. The longitudinal threads are called the warp and the lateral threads are the weft, woof, or filling. The method in which these threads are interwoven affects the characteristics of the cloth. Cloth is usually woven on a loom, a device that holds the warp threads in place while filling threads are woven through them. A fabric band that meets this definition of cloth can also be made using other methods, including tablet weaving, back strap loom, or other techniques that can be done without looms.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Yarn</span> Long continuous length of interlocked fibres

Yarn is a long continuous length of interlocked fibres, used in sewing, crocheting, knitting, weaving, embroidery, ropemaking, and the production of textiles. Thread is a type of yarn intended for sewing by hand or machine. Modern manufactured sewing threads may be finished with wax or other lubricants to withstand the stresses involved in sewing. Embroidery threads are yarns specifically designed for needlework. Yarn can be made of a number of natural or synthetic materials, and comes in a variety of colors and thicknesses. Although yarn may be dyed different colours, most yarns are solid coloured with a uniform hue.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Worsted</span> Fabrics manufactured from worsted yarns

Worsted is a high-quality type of wool yarn, the fabric made from this yarn, and a yarn weight category. The name derives from Worstead, a village in the English county of Norfolk. That village, together with North Walsham and Aylsham, formed a manufacturing centre for yarn and cloth in the 12th century, when pasture enclosure and liming rendered the East Anglian soil too rich for the older agrarian sheep breeds. In the same period, many weavers from the County of Flanders moved to Norfolk. "Worsted" yarns/fabrics are distinct from woollens : the former is considered stronger, finer, smoother, and harder than the latter.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mohair</span> Natural fiber (hair) of the Angora goat

Mohair originated from the Arabic word [مهير] and it is a fabric or yarn made from the hair of the Angora goat. Both durable and resilient, mohair is lustrous with high sheen, and is often blended to add these qualities to a textile. Mohair takes dye exceptionally well. It feels warm in winter due to excellent insulating properties, while moisture-wicking keeps it cool in summer. It is durable, naturally elastic, flame-resistant and crease-resistant. It is considered a luxury fiber, like cashmere, alpaca, angora, and silk, but is more expensive than most sheep's wool.

Woolen or woollen is a type of yarn made from carded wool. Woolen yarn is soft, light, stretchy, and full of air. It is thus a good insulator, and makes a good knitting yarn. Woolen yarn is in contrast to worsted yarn, in which the fibers are combed to lie parallel rather than carded, producing a hard, strong yarn.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Angora wool</span> Fur of the angora rabbit, used as a textile fiber

Angora hair or Angora fibre refers to the downy coat produced by the Angora rabbit. While the names of the source animals are similar, Angora fibre is distinct from mohair, which comes from the Angora goat. The cloth produced has sometimes been named Angola fabric. Angora fibre is also distinct from cashmere, which comes from the cashmere goat. Angora is known for its softness, thin fibres, and what knitters refer to as a halo (fluffiness). It is also known for its silky texture. It is much warmer and lighter than wool due to the hollow core of the angora fibre. It also gives the wool its characteristic floating feel.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cashmere wool</span> Fiber obtained from cashmere goats and other types of goat

Cashmere wool, usually simply known as cashmere, is a fiber obtained from cashmere goats, pashmina goats, and some other breeds of goat. It has been used to make yarn, textiles and clothing for hundreds of years. Cashmere is closely associated with the Kashmir shawl, the word "cashmere" deriving from an anglicization of Kashmir, when the Kashmir shawl reached Europe in the 19th century. Both the soft undercoat and the guard hairs may be used; the softer hair is reserved for textiles, while the coarse guard hair is used for brushes and other non-apparel purposes. Cashmere is a hygroscopic fiber, absorbing and releasing water from the air based on the surrounding environment. This helps regulate the body in both warm and cool temperatures.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Warp and weft</span> Two constituent threads of woven cloth

In the manufacture of cloth, warp and weft are the two basic components in weaving to transform thread and yarn into textile fabrics. The vertical warp yarns are held stationary in tension on a loom (frame) while the horizontal weft is drawn through the warp thread. In the terminology of weaving, each warp thread is called a warp end ; a pick is a single weft thread that crosses the warp thread.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Double cloth</span> Woven textile type

Double cloth or double weave is a kind of woven textile in which two or more sets of warps and one or more sets of weft or filling yarns are interconnected to form a two-layered cloth. The movement of threads between the layers allows complex patterns and surface textures to be created.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Crêpe (textile)</span> Any of various fabrics with twisted threads, often crinkled surface

Crêpe, also spelled crepe or crape, is a silk, wool, or synthetic fiber fabric with a distinctively crisp and crimped appearance. The term "crape" typically refers to a form of the fabric associated specifically with mourning. Crêpe was also historically called "crespe" or "crisp".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Textile manufacturing</span> The industry which produces textiles

Textile manufacturing or textile engineering is a major industry. It is largely based on the conversion of fibre into yarn, then yarn into fabric. These are then dyed or printed, fabricated into cloth which is then converted into useful goods such as clothing, household items, upholstery and various industrial products.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Horsehair</span> Long, coarse hair growing on the manes and tails of horses

Horsehair is the long hair growing on the manes and tails of horses. It is used for various purposes, including upholstery, brushes, the bows of musical instruments, a hard-wearing fabric called haircloth, and for horsehair plaster, a wallcovering material formerly used in the construction industry and now found only in older buildings.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Camel hair</span> Natural animal fiber, soft wool of the camel

Camel hair specifically refers to the fur from the body of a camel, but more generally refers to the fibre that may be made from either pure camel hair or a blend of camel hair and another fibre.

The manufacture of textiles is one of the oldest of human technologies. To make textiles, the first requirement is a source of fiber from which a yarn can be made, primarily by spinning. The yarn is processed by knitting or weaving, which turns it into cloth. The machine used for weaving is the loom. For decoration, the process of coloring yarn or the finished material is dyeing. For more information of the various steps, see textile manufacturing.

The United Nations General Assembly declared 2009 as the International Year of Natural Fibres (IYNF), as well as the International Year of Astronomy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Animal fiber</span> Natural fiber from animals like silk worms and sheep

Animal fibers are natural fibers that consist largely of certain proteins. Examples include silk, hair/fur and feathers. The animal fibers used most commonly both in the manufacturing world as well as by the hand spinners are wool from domestic sheep and silk. Also very popular are alpaca fiber and mohair from Angora goats. Unusual fibers such as Angora wool from rabbits and Chiengora from dogs also exist, but are rarely used for mass production.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Shot silk</span> Fabric woven such that it produces an iridescent appearance

Shot silk is a fabric which is made up of silk woven from warp and weft yarns of two or more colours producing an iridescent appearance. A "shot" is a single throw of the bobbin that carries the weft thread through the warp, and shot silk colours can be described as "[warp colour] shot with [weft colour]." The weaving technique can also be applied to other fibres, such as cotton, linen, and synthetics.

Textile manufacturing is one of the oldest human activities. The oldest known textiles date back to about 5000 B.C. In order to make textiles, the first requirement is a source of fibre from which a yarn can be made, primarily by spinning. The yarn is processed by knitting or weaving to create cloth. The machine used for weaving is the loom. Cloth is finished by what are described as wet process to become fabric. The fabric may be dyed, printed or decorated by embroidering with coloured yarns.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Lakshmanan, Ammayappan; Jose, Seiko; Chakraborty, Sujay (2016). "Luxury Hair Fibers for Fashion Industry". Sustainable Fibres for Fashion Industry. Environmental Footprints and Eco-design of Products and Processes. pp. 1–38. doi:10.1007/978-981-10-0522-0_1. ISBN   978-981-10-0520-6.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 Ryder, Michael L. (1993). "The use of goat hair : an introductory historical review". Anthropozoologica. 17: 38.
  3. ↑ Hunter, L. (2020). "Mohair, cashmere and other animal hair fibres". Handbook of Natural Fibres. pp. 279–383. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-818398-4.00012-8. ISBN   978-0-12-818398-4.
  4. 1 2 3 Bloomberg, David Ramli / (2023-11-01). "How Dog Hair Is Making a Resurgence as a Sustainable Textile". TIME. Retrieved 2024-09-22.
  5. 1 2 3 4 Greer, Janna Suzanne (8 April 2003). Evaluation of Non-Traditional Animal Fibers for Use in Textile Products (Thesis).[ page needed ]
  6. 1 2 McGregor, Bruce A. (2018). "Physical, chemical, and tensile properties of cashmere, mohair, alpaca, and other rare animal fibers". Handbook of Properties of Textile and Technical Fibres. pp. 105–136. doi:10.1016/b978-0-08-101272-7.00004-3. ISBN   978-0-08-101272-7.
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 Cole, George S. (1892). A Complete Dictionary of Dry Goods and History of Silk, Cotton, Linen, Wool and Other Fibrous Substances: Including a Full Explanation of the Modern Processes of Spinning, Dyeing and Weaving, with an Appendix Containing a Treatise on Window Trimming, German Words and Phrases, with Their English Pronunciation and Signification, Together with Various Useful Tables. W. B. Conkey Company.
  8. ↑ Tarlo, Emma (2017). Entanglement: the secret lives of hair (Paperback ed.). London: Oneworld. ISBN   978-1-78074-993-8.
  9. 1 2 "The use of goat hair : an introductory historical review". Anthropozoologica. 17: 40. 1993.
  10. ↑ Faxian (1886). A Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms. Clarendon Press. ISBN   978-0-524-01695-4.
  11. 1 2 3 4 5 Atwood, Roger (2020). "Weaving for Their Ancestors". Archaeology. 73 (6): 52–58. JSTOR   27056790.
  12. ↑ Myers, Adrian (2011). "The Things of Auschwitz". Archaeologies of Internment. One World Archaeology. pp. 75–88. doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-9666-4_5. ISBN   978-1-4419-9665-7.
  13. ↑ "haircloth". www.dictionary.com. Retrieved 2018-07-13.
  14. ↑ Tarlo, Emma (6 October 2016). Entanglement: The Secret Lives of Hair. Oneworld Publications. ISBN   9781780749938.
  15. ↑ "Horsehair | animal fibre". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2018-07-13.
  16. ↑ "A horse hair veil from Afghanistan". trc-leiden.nl. Retrieved 2024-09-22.
  17. 1 2 3 Vogelsang-Eastwood, Gillian; Vogelsang, Willem (31 December 2007). "The Turkish-Iranian Horse Hair Face-Veil". Persica. 21: 89–98. doi:10.2143/PERS.21.0.2022789.
  18. 1 2 Koo, Doyoung (28 February 2022). "'Petticoat Fever' Driven by Chosŏn Korea Garments: Exploring a 'fad' in Early Ming China and Its Implications for Regional Interactions between the Chosŏn and Ming Dynasties". International Journal of Korean History. 27 (1): 177–212. doi: 10.22372/ijkh.2022.27.1.177 .
  19. ↑ DiClemente, Linda Jeanne (1975). Relationship Between the Feminine Ideal, Role and Status and Women's Dress, 1867–1889 (Thesis). ProQuest   3073211186.[ page needed ]
  20. 1 2 "Horse hair sieves – Gorenjski muzej". Gorenjski Muzej. Retrieved 2024-09-22.
  21. ↑ thebookandpapergathering (2022-01-20). "Japanese horsehair sieves: who makes them and how to use them?". The Book & Paper Gathering. Retrieved 2024-09-22.
  22. 1 2 engineer.), Thomas Martin (civil (1813). The circle of the mechanical arts.
  23. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Chabros, Krystyna; Batčuluun, L. (1993). "Mongol Examples of Proto-Weaving". Central Asiatic Journal. 37 (1/2): 20–32. JSTOR   41927936.
  24. 1 2 Kuhns, Elizabeth (2007-12-18). The Habit: A History of the Clothing of Catholic Nuns. Random House Publishing Group. ISBN   978-0-307-42395-5.
  25. ↑ Anderson, Leslie (2018). Hair and Power in Medieval French Narrative (Thesis). ProQuest   2243721312.[ page needed ]
  26. ↑ Waldron, Harry Neff (1976). Expressions of religious conversion among laymen remaining within secular society in Gaul, 400–800 A.D. (Thesis). ProQuest   302770988.[ page needed ]
  27. 1 2 3 Crowfoot, Elisabeth; Pritchard, Frances; Staniland, Kay (2006). Textiles and Clothing, C.1150-c.1450. Boydell Press. ISBN   978-1-84383-239-3.
  28. 1 2 3 Grömer, Karina (2016). The Art of Prehistoric Textile Making: The Development of Craft Traditions and Clothing in Central Europe. doi:10.26530/oapen_604250. hdl:20.500.12657/32825. ISBN   978-3-902421-94-4.[ page needed ]
  29. ↑ Bjersing, Marie Ekstedt. "Biennial International Conference for the Craft Sciences (BICCS)". biccs.dh.gu.se. Retrieved 2024-09-22.
  30. ↑ Ekstedt Bjersing, Marie (20 September 2023). "Horsehair weaving for sievewrights: Documentation of an ongoing craft project". FormAkademisk. 16 (4). doi:10.7577/formakademisk.5477.
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