Bison

Last updated

Bison
Temporal range: 2.6–0  Ma
O
S
D
C
P
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Pg
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Early Pleistocene  – present
American bison k5680-1.jpg
American bison
(Bison bison)
Bison bonasus (Linnaeus 1758).jpg
European bison
(Bison bonasus)
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Artiodactyla
Family: Bovidae
Subfamily: Bovinae
Subtribe: Bovina
Genus: Bison
Hamilton Smith, 1827
Type species
Bison bison
Species
Bison
IUCN range of the two American bison subspecies.
  Plains bison (Bison bison subsp. bison)
  Wood bison (Bison bison subsp. athabascae)
Bison
IUCN range of the European bison.
  European bison (Bison bonasus)

A bison (pl.: bison) is a large bovine in the genus Bison (Greek: "wild ox" (bison) [1] ) within the tribe Bovini. Two extant and numerous extinct species are recognised.

Contents

Of the two surviving species, the American bison, B. bison, found only in North America, is the more numerous. Although colloquially referred to as a buffalo in the United States and Canada, [2] it is only distantly related to the true buffalo. The North American species is composed of two subspecies, the Plains bison, B. b. bison, and the wood bison, B. b. athabascae, which is the namesake of Wood Buffalo National Park in Canada. A third subspecies, the eastern bison (B. b. pennsylvanicus) is no longer considered a valid taxon, being a junior synonym of B. b. bison. [3] References to "woods bison" or "wood bison" from the eastern United States refer to this subspecies, not B. b. athabascae, which was not found in the region. The European bison, B. bonasus, or wisent, or zubr, or colloquially European buffalo, is found in Europe and the Caucasus, reintroduced after being extinct in the wild.

While bison species have been traditionally classified in their own genus, modern genetics indicates that they are nested within the genus Bos, which includes, among others, cattle, yaks and gaur, being most closely related to yaks. Bison are sometimes bred with domestic cattle and produce offspring called beefalo, in North America, or żubroń, in Poland.

Description

Magdalenian bison on plaque, 17,000-9,000 BC, Bedeilhac grottoe, Ariege Bison on plaque Bedeilhac grottoe Ariege.jpg
Magdalenian bison on plaque, 17,000–9,000 BC, Bédeilhac grottoe, Ariège

The American bison and the European bison (wisent) are the largest surviving terrestrial animals in North America and Europe. They are typical artiodactyl (cloven hooved) ungulates, and are similar in appearance to other bovines such as cattle and true buffalo. They are broad and muscular with shaggy coats of long hair. Adults grow up to 2 metres (6 feet 7 inches) in height and 3.5 m (11 ft 6 in) in length for American bison [4] [5] and up to 2.1 m (6 ft 11 in) in height [6] and 2.9 m (9 ft 6 in) in length for European bison. [7] American bison can weigh from around 400 to 1,270 kilograms (880 to 2,800 pounds) [5] [8] and European bison can weigh from 800 to 1,000 kg (1,800 to 2,200 lb). [7] European bison tend to be taller than American bison.

Bison are nomadic grazers and travel in herds. The bulls leave the herds of females at two or three years of age, and join a herd of males, which usually are smaller than female herds. Mature bulls rarely travel alone. Towards the end of the summer, for the reproductive season, the sexes necessarily commingle. [9]

American bison are known for living in the Great Plains, but formerly had a much larger range, including much of the eastern United States and parts of Mexico. Both species were hunted close to extinction during the 19th and 20th centuries, but have since rebounded. The wisent in part owes its survival to the Chernobyl disaster, as the Chernobyl Exclusion Zone has become a kind of wildlife preserve for wisent and other rare megafauna such as the Przewalski's horse, though poaching has become a threat in recent years. [10] The American Plains bison is no longer listed as endangered, but this does not mean the species is secure. Genetically pure B. b. bison currently number only about 20,000, separated into fragmented herds—all of which require active conservation measures. [11] The wood bison is on the endangered species list in Canada [12] and is listed as threatened in the United States, though numerous attempts have been made by beefalo ranchers to have it entirely removed from the Endangered Species List. [13]

A museum display shows the full skeleton of an adult male American bison. Bison skeleton taxidermy mount.jpg
A museum display shows the full skeleton of an adult male American bison.

Although superficially similar, physical and behavioural differences exist between the American and European bison. The American species has 15 ribs, while the European bison has 14. The American bison has four lumbar vertebrae, while the European has five. [14] (The difference in this case is that what would be the first lumbar vertebra has ribs attached to it in American bison and is thus counted as the 15th thoracic vertebra, compared to 14 thoracic vertebrae in wisent.) Adult American bison are less slim in build and have shorter legs. [15] American bison tend to graze more, and browse less than their European relatives. Their anatomies reflect this behavioural difference; the American bison's head hangs lower than the European's. The body of the American bison is typically hairier, though its tail has less hair than that of the European bison. The horns of the European bison point through the plane of their faces, making them more adept at fighting through the interlocking of horns in the same manner as domestic cattle, unlike the American bison, which favours butting. [16] American bison are more easily tamed than their European cousins, and breed with domestic cattle more readily. [17]

Evolution and genetic history

The bovine tribe (Bovini) split about 5 to 10 million years ago into the buffalos ( Bubalus and Syncerus ) and a group leading to bison and taurine cattle. [18] Genetic evidence from nuclear DNA indicates that the closest living relatives of bison are yaks, with bison being nested within the genus Bos, rendering Bos without including bison paraphyletic. While nuclear DNA indicates that both extant bison species are each other's closest living relatives, the mitochondrial DNA of European bison is more closely related to that of domestic cattle and aurochs (while the mitochondrial DNA of American bison is closely related to that of yaks). This discrepancy is either suggested to be the result of incomplete lineage sorting or ancient introgression. [19] [20] [21] Bison are widely believed to have evolved from a lineage belonging to the extinct genus Leptobos during the Late Pliocene to Early Pleistocene in Asia. The earliest members of the bison lineage, known from the Late Pliocene to Early Pleistocene of the Indian Subcontinent (Bison sivalensis) and China (Bison palaeosinensis), approximately 3.4-2.6 million years ago (Ma) are placed in the subgenus Bison (Eobison). The oldest remains of Eobison in Europe are those Bison georgicus found in Dmanisi, Georgia, dated to around 1.76 Ma. More derived members of the genus are placed in the subgenus Bison (Bison), which first appeared towards the end of the Early Pleistocene, around 1.2 Ma, with early members of the subgenus including the widespread Bison schoetensacki . [22]

The steppe bison (Bison priscus) first appeared during the mid-Middle Pleistocene in eastern Eurasia, and subsequently became widely distributed across Eurasia. [22] During the late Middle Pleistocene, around 195,000-135,000 years ago, the steppe bison migrated across the Bering land bridge into North America, becoming ancestral to modern American bison, as well as extinct forms such as the largest known bison, the long-horned Bison latifrons, and the smaller Bison antiquus, which became extinct at the end of the Late Pleistocene. [23] Modern American bison are thought to have evolved from B. antiquus during the Late Pleistocene-Holocene transition via the intermediate form Bison occidentalis . [24] The European bison, Bison bonasus, first appeared in Europe during the late Middle Pleistocene, where it existed in sympatry with the steppe bison. Its relationship with other extinct bison species is unclear, though it appears to be only distantly related to the steppe and American bisons, with possibly some interbreeding between the two lineages during the Middle Pleistocene. [20] The steppe bison survived into the early-mid Holocene in Alaska-Yukon and eastern Siberia, before becoming extinct. [25] [26]

Skulls of European bison (left) and American bison (right) Euroameribison.jpg
Skulls of European bison (left) and American bison (right)

During the population bottleneck caused by the great slaughter of American bison during the 19th century, the number of bison remaining alive in North America declined to as low as 541. During that period, a handful of ranchers gathered remnants of the existing herds to save the species from extinction. These ranchers bred some of the bison with cattle in an effort to produce "cattleo" [27] (today called "beefalo"). Accidental crossings were also known to occur. Generally, male domestic bulls were crossed with bison cows, producing offspring of which only the females were fertile. The crossbred animals did not demonstrate any form of hybrid vigor, so the practice was abandoned. Wisent-American bison hybrids were briefly experimented with in Germany (and found to be fully fertile) and a herd of such animals is maintained in Russia. A herd of cattle-wisent crossbreeds (zubron) is maintained in Poland. First-generation crosses do not occur naturally, requiring caesarean delivery. First-generation males are infertile. The U.S. National Bison Association has adopted a code of ethics that prohibits its members from deliberately crossbreeding bison with any other species. In the United States, many ranchers are now using DNA testing to cull the residual cattle genetics from their bison herds. The proportion of cattle DNA that has been measured in introgressed individuals and bison herds today is typically quite low, ranging from 0.56 to 1.8%. [27] [28]

There are also remnant purebred American bison herds on public lands in North America. Two subspecies of bison exist in North America: the plains bison and the wood bison. [29] Herds of importance are found in Yellowstone National Park, Wind Cave National Park in South Dakota, Blue Mounds State Park in Minnesota, Elk Island National Park in Alberta, and Grasslands National Park in Saskatchewan. In 2015, a purebred herd of 350 individuals was identified on public lands in the Henry Mountains of southern Utah via genetic testing of mitochondrial and nuclear DNA. [30] This study, published in 2015, also showed the Henry Mountains bison herd to be free of brucellosis, a bacterial disease that was imported with non-native domestic cattle to North America. [31]

In 2021, the American Society of Mammalogists considered Bison to be a subgenus, and placed both bison species back into Bos . [32] [ failed verification ]

Relationships of bovines based on nuclear DNA, after Sinding, et al. 2021. [33]


Bubalina (true buffalo)

Bos

Bos primigenius + Bos taurus (aurochs and cattle)

Bos mutus (wild yak)

Bison

Bison bison (American bison)

Bison bonasus (European bison/wisent)

Bos javanicus (banteng)

Bos gaurus (gaur)

Bos sauveli (kouprey)

Behavior

A group of images by Eadweard Muybridge, set to motion to illustrate the movement of the bison Muybridge Buffalo galloping.gif
A group of images by Eadweard Muybridge, set to motion to illustrate the movement of the bison
A bison charges an elk in Yellowstone National Park. Buffalo charges Elk near old faithful - panoramio.jpg
A bison charges an elk in Yellowstone National Park.

Wallowing is a common behavior of bison. A bison wallow is a shallow depression in the soil, either wet or dry. Bison roll in these depressions, covering themselves with mud or dust. Possible explanations suggested for wallowing behavior include grooming behavior associated with moulting, male-male interaction (typically rutting behavior), social behavior for group cohesion, play behavior, relief from skin irritation due to biting insects, reduction of ectoparasite load (ticks and lice), and thermoregulation. [34] In the process of wallowing, bison may become infected by the fatal disease anthrax, which may occur naturally in the soil. [35]

Bison temperament is often unpredictable. They usually appear peaceful, unconcerned, or even lazy, but they may attack without warning or apparent reason. They can move at speeds up to 56 km/h (35 mph) and cover long distances at a lumbering gallop. [36]

Their most obvious weapons are the horns borne by both males and females, but their massive heads can be used as battering rams, effectively using the momentum produced by what is a typical weight of 900 to 1,200 kilograms (2,000 to 2,700 lb) moving at 50 km/h (30 mph). The hind legs can also be used to kill or maim with devastating effect. In the words of early naturalists, they were dangerous, savage animals that feared no other animal and in prime condition could best any foe except for a brown bear or a pack of wolves. [36] [9] [37]

The rutting, or mating, season lasts from June through September, with peak activity in July and August. At this time, the older bulls rejoin the herd, and fights often take place between bulls. The herd exhibits much restlessness during breeding season. The animals are belligerent, unpredictable, and most dangerous. [36]

Habitat

Last of the Canadian Buffaloes (1902; photograph: Steele and Company) The last of the Canadian buffaloes Photo No 580 (HS85-10-13487).jpg
Last of the Canadian Buffaloes (1902; photograph: Steele and Company)

American bison live in river valleys and on prairies and plains. Typical habitat is open or semiopen grasslands, as well as sagebrush, semiarid lands, and scrublands. Some lightly wooded areas are also known historically to have supported bison. They also graze in hilly or mountainous areas where the slopes are not steep. Although not particularly known as high-altitude animals, bison in the Yellowstone Park bison herd are frequently found at elevations above 2,400 metres (8,000 ft). The Henry Mountains bison herd is found on the plains around the Henry Mountains, Utah, as well as in mountain valleys of the Henry Mountains to an altitude of 3,000 metres (10,000 ft).[ citation needed ]

European bison most commonly live in lightly wooded to fully wooded areas as well as areas with increased shrubs and bushes. European bison can sometimes be found living on grasslands and plains as well. [38] [39]

Restrictions

Throughout most of their historical range, landowners have sought restrictions on free-ranging bison. Herds on private land are required to be fenced in. [40]

In the state of Montana, free-ranging bison on public land are legally shot, due to transmission of disease to cattle and damage to public property. [41]

In 2013, Montana legislative measures concerning the bison were proposed and passed, but opposed by Native American tribes as they impinged on sovereign tribal rights. Three such bills were vetoed by Steve Bullock, the governor of Montana. The bison's circumstances remain an issue of contention between Native American tribes and private landowners. [42]

Diet

A bison and a bull elk grazing together in Yellowstone National Park Elk and Bison inYellowstone, Wyoming.jpg
A bison and a bull elk grazing together in Yellowstone National Park

Bison are ruminants, able to ferment cellulose in a specialized stomach prior to digestion. Bison were once thought to almost exclusively consume grasses and sedges, but are now known to consume a wide-variety of plants including woody plants and herbaceous eudicots. [43] [44] Over the course of the year, bison shift which plants they select in their diet based on which plants have the highest protein or energy concentrations at a given time and will reliably consume the same species of plants across years. [43] Protein concentrations of the plants they eat tend to be highest in the spring and decline thereafter, reaching their lowest in the winter. [43] In Yellowstone National Park, bison browsed willows and cottonwoods, not only in the winter when few other plants are available, but also in the summer. [45] Bison are thought to migrate to optimize their diet, [46] and will concentrate their feeding on recently burned areas due to the higher quality forage that regrows after the burn. [47] Wisent tend to browse on shrubs and low-hanging trees more often than do the American bison, which prefer grass to shrubbery and trees. [48]

Reproduction

A bison calf resting with its mother Bison with its young.jpg
A bison calf resting with its mother

Female bison ("cows") typically reproduce after three years of age [49] and can continue beyond 19 years of age. [50] Cows produce calves annually as long as their nutrition is sufficient, but not after years when weight gain is low. Reproduction is dependent on a cow's mass and age. [50] Heavier cows produce heavier calves (weighed in the fall at weaning), and weights of calves are lower for older cows (after age 8). [50]

Predators

Wolves hunting bison in Yellowstone National Park Journal.pone.0112884.g001 a.png
Wolves hunting bison in Yellowstone National Park

Owing to their size, bison have few predators. Five exceptions are humans, grey wolves, cougars, grizzly bears, and coyotes. [51] Wolves generally take down a bison while in a pack, but cases of a single wolf killing bison have been reported. [37] Grizzly bears also consume bison, often by driving off the pack and consuming the wolves' kill. [9] Grizzly bears and coyotes also prey on bison calves. Historically and prehistorically, lions, cave lions, tigers, dire wolves, Smilodon , Homotherium , cave hyenas, and Neanderthals posed threats to bison.

Infections and illness

For American bison, a main illness is malignant catarrhal fever, [52] though brucellosis is a serious concern in the Yellowstone Park bison herd. [53] Bison in the Antelope Island bison herd are regularly inoculated against brucellosis, parasites, Clostridium infection, infectious bovine rhinotracheitis, and bovine vibriosis. [54]

The major illnesses in European bison are foot-and-mouth disease and balanoposthitis. [55] Inbreeding of a small population plays a role in a number of genetic defects and lowers immunity to disease; that poses greater risk to the population. [55]

Name

Although called "buffalo" in American English, they are only distantly related to two "true buffalo", the Asian water buffalo and the African buffalo. Samuel de Champlain applied the French term buffle to the bison in 1616 (published 1619), after seeing skins and a drawing shown to him by members of the Nipissing First Nation, who said they travelled 40 days (from east of Lake Huron) to trade with another nation who hunted the animals. [56] Though "bison" might be considered more scientifically correct, "buffalo" is also considered correct as a result of standard usage in American English, and is listed in many dictionaries as an acceptable name for American buffalo or bison. "Buffalo" has a much longer history than "bison", which was first recorded in 1774. [57]

Human impact

Photo of a Native American Bison Hunt diorama located at the Milwaukee Public Museum in Wisconsin Milwaukee Public Museum March 2023 31 (North American Indians- A Tribute to Survival--Crow Indian Bison Hunt).jpg
Photo of a Native American Bison Hunt diorama located at the Milwaukee Public Museum in Wisconsin

Bison was a significant resource for indigenous peoples of North America for food and raw materials until near extinction in the late 19th century. For the indigenous peoples of the Plains, it was their principal food source. [58] Native Americans highly valued their relationship with the bison and saw them as sacred, treating them respectfully to ensure their abundance and longevity. In his biography, Lakota teacher and elder John Fire Lame Deer describes the relationship as such: [59]

The buffalo gave us everything we needed. Without it we were nothing. Our tipis were made of his skin. His hide was our bed, our blanket, our winter coat. It was our drum, throbbing through the night, alive, holy. Out of his skin we made our water bags. His flesh strengthened us, became flesh of our flesh. Not the smallest part of it was wasted. His stomach, a red-hot stone dropped into it, became our soup kettle. His horns were our spoons, the bones our knives, our women's awls and needles. Out of his sinews we made our bowstrings and thread. His ribs were fashioned into sleds for our children, his hoofs became rattles. His mighty skull, with the pipe leaning against it, was our sacred altar. The name of the greatest of all Sioux was Tatanka Iyotake—Sitting Bull. When you killed off the buffalo you also killed the Indian—the real, natural, "wild" Indian.

Photo from 1892 of a pile of American bison skulls waiting to be ground for fertilizer Bison skull pile edit.jpg
Photo from 1892 of a pile of American bison skulls waiting to be ground for fertilizer

European colonials were almost exclusively accountable for the near-extinction of the American bison in the 1800s. At the beginning of the century, tens of millions of bison roamed North America. Colonists slaughtered an estimated 50 million bison during the 19th century, although the causes of decline and the numbers killed are disputed and debated. [60] [61] Railroads were advertising "hunting by rail", where trains encountered large herds alongside or crossing the tracks. Men aboard fired from the train's roof or windows, leaving countless animals to rot where they died. [62] This overhunting was in part motivated by the U.S. government's desire to limit the range and power of indigenous plains Indians whose diets and cultures depended on the buffalo herds. [63] The overhunting of the bison reduced their population to hundreds. [64]

The American bison's nadir came in 1889, with an estimated population of only 1,091 animals (both wild and captive). [65] Repopulation attempts via enforced protection of government herds and extensive ranching began in 1910 and have continued (with excellent success) to the present day, with some caveats. Extensive farming has increased the bison's population to nearly 150,000, and it is officially no longer considered an endangered species. [64] However, from a genetic standpoint, most of these animals are actually hybrids with domestic cattle and only two populations in Yellowstone National Park in the United States and Elk Island National Park in Canada remain as genetically pure bison. These genetically pure animals account for only ~5% of the currently extant American bison population, reflecting the loss of most of the species' genetic diversity. [66]

As of July 2015, an estimated 4,900 bison lived in Yellowstone National Park, the largest U.S. bison population on public land. [67] During 1983–1985 visitors experienced 33 bison-related injuries (range = 10–13/year), so the park implemented education campaigns. After years of success, five injuries associated with bison encounters occurred in 2015, because visitors did not maintain the required distance of 75 ft (23 m) from bison while hiking or taking pictures. [68]

Nutrition

Bison is an excellent source of complete protein and a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of multiple vitamins, including riboflavin, niacin, vitamin B6, and vitamin B12, and is also a rich source of minerals, including iron, phosphorus, and zinc. Additionally, bison is a good source (10% or more of the DV) of thiamine.

Bison, ground, grass-fed, cooked
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy 180 kcal (750 kJ)
0.00 g
Sugars 0 g
Dietary fiber 0 g
Fat
8.62 g
Saturated 3.489 g
Monounsaturated 3.293g
Polyunsaturated 0.402 g
25.45 g
Vitamins Quantity
%DV
Thiamine (B1)
12%
0.139 mg
Riboflavin (B2)
22%
0.264 mg
Niacin (B3)
40%
5.966 mg
Vitamin B6
31%
0.401 mg
Folate (B9)
4%
16 μg
Vitamin B12
102%
2.44 μg
Vitamin D
0%
0 IU
Vitamin E
1%
0.20 mg
Vitamin K
1%
1.3 μg
Minerals Quantity
%DV
Calcium
1%
14 mg
Iron
25%
3.19 mg
Magnesium
6%
23 mg
Phosphorus
30%
213 mg
Potassium
12%
353 mg
Sodium
5%
76 mg
Zinc
56%
5.34 mg

Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults.
Source: USDA FoodData Central

Livestock

The earliest plausible accounts of captive bison are those of the zoo at Tenochtitlan, the Aztec capital, which held an animal the Spaniards called "the Mexican bull". [69] In 1552, Francisco Lopez de Gomara described Plains Indians herding and leading bison like cattle in his controversial book, Historia general de las Indias . Gomara, having never visited the Americas himself, likely misinterpreted early ethnographic accounts as the more familiar pastoralist relationship of the Old World. [70] Today, bison are increasingly raised for meat, hides, wool, and dairy products. The majority of bison in the world are raised for human consumption or fur clothing. Bison meat is generally considered to taste very similar to beef, but is lower in fat and cholesterol, yet higher in protein than beef, which has led to the development of beefalo, a fertile hybrid of bison and domestic cattle. A market even exists for kosher bison meat; these bison are slaughtered at one of the few kosher mammal slaughterhouses in the U.S. and Canada, and the meat is then distributed worldwide. [71] [72] [73]

In America, the commercial industry for bison has been slow to develop despite individuals, such as Ted Turner, who have long marketed bison meat. [74] In the 1990s, Turner found limited success with restaurants for high-quality cuts of meat, which include bison steaks and tenderloin. [75] Lower-quality cuts suitable for hamburger and hot dogs have been described as "almost nonexistent". [75] This created a marketing problem for commercial farming because the majority of usable meat, about 400 pounds for each bison, is suitable for these products. [75] In 2003, the United States Department of Agriculture purchased $10 million worth of frozen overstock to save the industry, which would later recover through better use of consumer marketing. [76] Restaurants have played a role in popularizing bison meat, like Ted's Montana Grill, which added bison to their menus. [74] Ruby Tuesday first offered bison on their menus in 2005. [76]

In Canada, commercial bison farming began in the mid-1980s, concerning an unknown number of animals then. [73] The first census of the bison occurred in 1996, which recorded 45,235 bison on 745 farms, and grew to 195,728 bison on 1,898 farms for the 2006 census. [73]

Several pet food companies use bison as a red meat alternative in dog foods. The companies producing these formulas include Natural Balance Pet Foods, Freshpet, the Blue Buffalo Company, Solid Gold, Canidae, and Taste of the Wild (made by Diamond Pet Foods, Inc., owned by Schell and Kampeter, Inc.). [77]

See also

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Plains bison</span> Subspecies of bison

The Plains bison is one of two subspecies/ecotypes of the American bison, the other being the wood bison. A natural population of Plains bison survives in Yellowstone National Park and multiple smaller reintroduced herds of bison in many places in the United States as well as southern portions of the Canadian Prairies.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pleistocene rewilding</span> Ecological practice

Pleistocene rewilding is the advocacy of the reintroduction of extant Pleistocene megafauna, or the close ecological equivalents of extinct megafauna. It is an extension of the conservation practice of rewilding, which aims to restore functioning, self-sustaining ecosystems through practices that may include species reintroductions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">American Bison Society</span> Organization to help save the bison

The American Bison Society (ABS) was founded in 1905 by the New York Zoological Society (NYZS) to help save the bison from extinction and raise public awareness about the species by pioneering conservationists and sportsmen including Ernest Harold Baynes, William T. Hornaday, Madison Grant and Theodore Roosevelt.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bison hunting</span> History of American bison hunting

Bison hunting was an activity fundamental to the economy and society of the Plains Indians peoples who inhabited the vast grasslands on the Interior Plains of North America, before the animal's near-extinction in the late 19th century following US expansion into the West. Bison hunting was an important spiritual practice and source of material for these groups, especially after the European introduction of the horse in the 16th through 19th centuries enabled new hunting techniques. The species' dramatic decline was the result of habitat loss due to the expansion of ranching and farming in western North America, industrial-scale hunting practiced by non-Indigenous hunters increased Indigenous hunting pressure due to non-Indigenous demand for bison hides and meat, and cases of a deliberate policy by settler governments to destroy the food source of the Indigenous peoples during times of conflict.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pleistocene Park</span> Ecological experiment to make an Ice Age-Like Reserve

Pleistocene Park is a nature reserve on the Kolyma River south of Chersky in the Sakha Republic, Russia, in northeastern Siberia, where an attempt is being made to re-create the northern subarctic steppe grassland ecosystem that flourished in the area during the last glacial period.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Antelope Island bison herd</span> Population of bison in Utah, USA

The Antelope Island bison herd is a semi–free-ranging population of American bison in Antelope Island State Park in Great Salt Lake, Utah. Bison were introduced to Antelope Island in 1893. The herd is significant because it is one of the largest and oldest publicly owned bison herds in the nation. The Antelope Island bison herd currently numbers between 550 and 700 individuals. Though the bison on Antelope Island are Prairie bison, which was the most common bison subspecies in North America, the bison have a distinct genetic heritage from many of the other bison herds in the United States and they are considered to be desirable as part of the breeding and foundation stock for other bison herds, because of their separate genetic heritage and some of the distinct genetic markers that are found in the population.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Yellowstone bison herd</span> Oldest public herd in the United States

The Yellowstone bison herd roams the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. The bison herd is probably the oldest and largest public bison herd in the United States, estimated in 2020 to comprise 4,800 bison. The bison are American bison of the Plains bison subspecies. Yellowstone National Park may be the only location in the United States where free-ranging bison were never extirpated, since they continued to exist in the wild and were not reintroduced.

The Henry Mountains bison herd, numbering 250 to 400 American bison, is one of only four free-roaming bison herds on public lands in North America. The other three herds are the Yellowstone bison herd which was the ancestral herd for the Henry Mountains animals, the Wind Cave bison herd in South Dakota and the herd on Elk Island in Alberta, Canada.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wind Cave bison herd</span> American bison in Wind Cave National Park, South Dakota

The Wind Cave bison herd is a herd of 250–400 American bison in Wind Cave National Park, South Dakota, United States. As an active participant in the conservation of American bison, it is believed to be one of only seven free-roaming and genetically pure herds on public lands in North America. The other six herds are in Yellowstone Park, Theodore Roosevelt National Park, Henry Mountains, Blue Mounds State Park (Minnesota), Minneopa State Park (Minnesota), and Elk Island National Park. The Wind Cave herd are of the Plains bison subspecies.

<i>Bison schoetensacki</i> Extinct species of mammal

Bison schoetensacki, commonly as the Pleistocene woodland bison or Pleistocene wood bison, was a species of bison that lived until from the Early Pleistocene to at least the early Middle Pleistocene from western Europe to southern Siberia. Its presence in the Late Pleistocene is debated.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Conservation of American bison</span> Effort to increase bison in North America

The conservation of bison in North America is an ongoing, diverse effort to bring American bison back from the brink of extinction. Plains bison, a subspecies, are a keystone species in the North American Great Plains. Bison are a species of conservation concern in part because they suffered a severe population bottleneck at the end of the 19th century. The near extinction of the species during the 1800s unraveled fundamental ties between bison, grassland ecosystems, and indigenous peoples’ cultures and livelihoods.# English speakers used the word buffalo for this animal when they arrived. Bison was used as the scientific term to distinguish them from the true buffalo. Buffalo is commonly used as it continues to hold cultural significance, particularly for Indigenous people. Recovery began in the late 1800s with a handful of individuals independently saving the last surviving bison.# Dedicated restoration efforts in the 1900s bolstered bison numbers though they still exist in mostly small and isolated populations. Expansion of the understanding of bison ecology and management is ongoing. The contemporary widespread, collaborative effort includes attention to heritage genetics and minimal cattle introgression.#

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