Red meat

Last updated

Thinly sliced raw beef is red. Raw beef slices.jpg
Thinly sliced raw beef is red.
Roast beef is a darker brown color. Roastbeef.jpg
Roast beef is a darker brown color.

In gastronomy, red meat is commonly red when raw (and a dark color after it is cooked), in contrast to white meat, which is pale in color before (and after) cooking. [1] [2] In culinary terms, only flesh from mammals or fowl (not fish) is classified as red or white. [3] [4] In nutritional science, red meat is defined as any meat that has more of the protein myoglobin than white meat. White meat is defined as non-dark meat from fish or chicken (excluding the leg or thigh, which is called dark meat).

Contents

Regular consumption of red meat, both unprocessed and especially processed types, has been associated with negative health outcomes.

Definition

Concentration of myoglobin by percentage of mass
NameMyoglobinUSDA category
Old beef 1.50 – 2.00% [5] Red meat [6]
Beef 0.40 – 1.00% [5] Red meat [6]
Pork 0.10 – 0.30% [5] Red meat [6]
Veal 0.10 – 0.30% [5] Red meat [6]
Turkey thigh 0.25 – 0.30% [5] Dark meat
Chicken thigh 0.18 – 0.20% [5] Dark meat
Turkey breast 0.008% [7] White meat
Chicken breast 0.005% [5] White meat [6]
Cooked duck with potatoes, showing the red color of the meat Duck breast, smoked and panfried.jpg
Cooked duck with potatoes, showing the red color of the meat

Under the culinary definition, the meat from adult or "gamey" mammals (for example, beef, horse, mutton, venison, boar, hare) is red meat, while that from young mammals (rabbit, veal, lamb) is white although sometimes rabbit meat is considered red meat. Poultry is white, excluding certain birds such as ostriches. [8] Most cuts of pork are red, others are white. [9] Game is sometimes put in a separate category altogether (French: viandes noires — "dark meats"). [4] Some meats (lamb, pork) are classified differently by different writers.

According to the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), all meats obtained from mammals (regardless of cut or age) are red meats because they contain more myoglobin, which gives them their red color, [10] than fish or white meat (but not necessarily dark meat) [5] from chicken. [6] [11] The USDA also classifies ratites, such as ostriches, emus, and rhea, as red meat. [12] Some cuts of pork are considered white under the culinary definition, but all pork is considered red meat in nutritional studies. The National Pork Board has positioned it as "the other white meat", profiting from the ambiguity to suggest that pork has the nutritional properties of white meat, which is considered more healthful. [13] [14]

Nutrition

Red meat contains large amounts of iron, creatine, minerals such as zinc and phosphorus, and B-vitamins: (niacin, vitamin B12, thiamin and riboflavin). [15] Red meat is a source of lipoic acid.

Red meat contains small amounts of vitamin D. [16] Offal such as liver contains much higher quantities than other parts of the animal. [17]

In 2011, the USDA launched MyPlate, which did not distinguish between kinds of meat, but did recommend eating at least 8 oz (230 g) of fish each week. [18] [19] In 2011, the Harvard School of Public Health launched the Healthy Eating Plate in part because of the perceived inadequacies of the USDA's recommendations. [18] The Healthy Eating Plate encourages consumers to avoid processed meat and limit red meat consumption to twice a week because of links to heart disease, diabetes, and colon cancer. To replace these meats it recommends consuming fish, poultry, beans, or nuts. [18]

Health effects

There are no long-term randomized controlled trials that have investigated red meat consumption and disease outcomes and are unlikely to be conducted due to ethical, financial and practical reasons. [20] [21] Most of the data on red meat and health effects is from long-term epidemiological studies. [21] [22]

Overall, diets high in red and processed meats are associated with an increased risk of type 2 diabetes (T2D), cardiovascular disease (CVD), cancer (particularly colorectal cancer), and all-cause mortality. [23] [24] [25] [21] The body of epidemiological data showing their associations with T2D, CVD, and cancer is large and consistent. [21]

The associations are strongest for processed meat, which is meat that has undergone salting, curing, fermentation, smoking, or other processes to enhance flavor or improve preservation, such as bacon, ham, salami, pepperoni, hot dogs, and some sausages. [26] Also, meat that is cooked longer and at higher temperatures is associated with a 4.62 times greater risk of breast cancer compared with rare or medium-done meat. [27] [28]

A 2021 umbrella review reported an increase of 11–51% risk of multiple cancer per 100g/d increment of red meat, and an increase of 8-72% risk of multiple cancer per 50g/d increment of processed meat. [29]

A 2022 study challenged the dose-response relationship using a newly developed burden of proof risk function (BPRF). It found weak evidence available regarding whether eating red meat increases the risk of death. The authors conclude that the quality of the available evidence is insufficient to make stronger or more conclusive recommendations regarding the health effects of eating red meat. [30] However, the BPRF approach has been criticised for being overly simplistic. [31]

Cancer

The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) of the World Health Organization (WHO) classifies processed meat as carcinogenic to humans (Group 1), based on "sufficient evidence in humans that the consumption of processed meat causes colorectal cancer." [32] Unprocessed red meat is categorised as "probably carcinogenic to humans (Group 2A), based on limited evidence that the consumption of red meat causes cancer in humans and strong mechanistic evidence supporting a carcinogenic effect." [26] [33] Positive associations have also been observed between red meat consumption and increased risks of pancreatic cancer and prostate cancer but the link is not as clear. [26] The American Cancer Society have stated "evidence that red and processed meats increase cancer risk has existed for decades, and many health organizations recommend limiting or avoiding these foods." [34]

The American Institute for Cancer Research, Cancer Research UK and World Cancer Research Fund International have stated there is strong evidence that consumption of processed red meat is a cause of colorectal cancer and there is probable evidence that unprocessed red meat is a cause of cancer. [35] [36] [37] Put in perspective in the UK, adults eating processed and red meat at 79g per day on average had a 32% increased risk of colorectal cancer compared to those eating less than 11g per day. [38]

Reviews have also found that high consumption of red meat is associated with increased risk of gastrointestinal cancer. [39] [40]

Mechanisms

Heme iron in red meat has been associated with increased colorectal cancer risk. [41] The American Institute for Cancer Research and World Cancer Research Fund have commented that "haem iron, which is present at high levels in red meat, has been shown to promote colorectal tumorigenesis by stimulating the endogenous formation of carcinogenic N-nitroso compound." [22] N-Glycolylneuraminic acid (Neu5Gc) has also been suggested as a mechanism. [42] [43] [44]

Meat with a dark exterior, common in high temperature cooking Delmonico steak.jpg
Meat with a dark exterior, common in high temperature cooking

A 2017 literature review indicated there are numerous potential carcinogens of colorectal tissue in red meat, particularly those in processed red meat products, such as N-nitroso compounds, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and heterocyclic amines (HCAs). [45] Cooking meat with "high-temperature methods, such as pan frying or grilling directly over an open flame", also causes formation of PAHs and HCAs. [46]

Cardiovascular disease and stroke

Red meat consumption is associated with an increased risk of coronary heart disease, high blood pressure and stroke. [47] [48] Factors associated with increased stroke risk from consuming red meat include saturated fats that increase levels of blood cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, triglycerides, and heme iron, which may precipitate atherogenesis in cerebral arteries, leading to stroke. [49]

In 2020, the National Heart Foundation of New Zealand Expert Nutrition Policy (ENP) issued a position statement that concluded that high consumption of red meat increases risk of heart disease and stroke by 16% therefore one should aim to reduce consumption of red meat below 350g per week and replace meat with plant sources of protein. [47] [50]

Diabetes

Processed and unprocessed red meat consumption is a risk factor for developing type 2 diabetes across populations. [51] [52] [53]

A 2017 review found that daily consumption of 85 grams of red meat and 35 grams of processed red meat products by European and American consumers increased their risk of type 2 diabetes by 18–36%, while a diet of abstinence of red meat consuming whole grains, vegetables, fruits, and dairy was associated with an 81% reduced risk of diabetes. [54] One study estimated that "substitutions of one serving of nuts, low-fat dairy, and whole grains per day for one serving of red meat per day were associated with a 16–35% lower risk of type 2 diabetes". [55] A 2022 umbrella review found that consuming an additional 100g of red meat per day was associated with a 17% increased risk of type 2 diabetes. [56]

The European Association for the Study of Diabetes recommends that diabetics minimise the consumption of red meat. [57]

Inflammatory bowel disease

High red and processed meat consumption is associated with an increased risk of inflammatory bowel disease. [58] [59] The American Gastroenterological Association have stated that a diet low in red and processed meat may reduce ulcerative colitis flares. [60]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dairy product</span> Food product made from milk

Dairy products or milk products, also known as lacticinia, are food products made from milk. The most common dairy animals are cow, water buffalo, nanny goat, and ewe. Dairy products include common grocery store food around the world such as yogurt, cheese, milk and butter. A facility that produces dairy products is a dairy. Dairy products are consumed worldwide to varying degrees. Some people avoid some or all dairy products because of lactose intolerance, veganism, environmental concerns, other health reasons or beliefs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fat</span> Esters of fatty acid or triglycerides

In nutrition, biology, and chemistry, fat usually means any ester of fatty acids, or a mixture of such compounds, most commonly those that occur in living beings or in food.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Meat</span> Animal flesh eaten as food

Meat is animal tissue, often muscle, that is eaten as food. Humans have hunted and farmed other animals for meat since prehistory. The Neolithic Revolution allowed the domestication of vertebrates, including chickens, sheep, goats, pigs, horses, and cattle, starting around 11,000 years ago. Since then, selective breeding has enabled farmers to produce meat with the qualities desired by producers and consumers.

A saturated fat is a type of fat in which the fatty acid chains have all single bonds between the carbon atoms. A fat known as a glyceride is made of two kinds of smaller molecules: a short glycerol backbone and fatty acids that each contain a long linear or branched chain of carbon (C) atoms. Along the chain, some carbon atoms are linked by single bonds (-C-C-) and others are linked by double bonds (-C=C-). A double bond along the carbon chain can react with a pair of hydrogen atoms to change into a single -C-C- bond, with each H atom now bonded to one of the two C atoms. Glyceride fats without any carbon chain double bonds are called saturated because they are "saturated with" hydrogen atoms, having no double bonds available to react with more hydrogen.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mediterranean diet</span> Diet inspired by the Mediterranean region

The Mediterranean diet is a concept first invented in 1975 by the American biologist Ancel Keys and chemist Margaret Keys. The diet took inspiration from the eating habits and traditional food typical of Crete, much of the rest of Greece, and southern Italy, and formulated in the early 1960s. It is distinct from Mediterranean cuisine, which covers the actual cuisines of the Mediterranean countries, and from the Atlantic diet of northwestern Spain and Portugal. While inspired by a specific time and place, the "Mediterranean diet" was later refined based on the results of multiple scientific studies.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Plant-based diet</span> Diet consisting mostly or entirely of plant-based foods

A plant-based diet is a diet consisting mostly or entirely of plant-based foods. It encompasses a wide range of dietary patterns that contain low amounts of animal products and high amounts of fiber-rich plant products such as vegetables, fruits, whole grains, legumes, nuts, seeds, herbs, and spices. Plant-based diets may also be vegan or vegetarian but do not have to be, as they are defined in terms of high frequency of plants and low frequency of animal food consumption.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Healthy diet</span> Type of diet

A healthy diet is a diet that maintains or improves overall health. A healthy diet provides the body with essential nutrition: fluid, macronutrients such as protein, micronutrients such as vitamins, and adequate fibre and food energy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Processed meat</span> Type of meat

Processed meat is considered to be any meat that has been modified in order to either improve its taste or to extend its shelf life. Methods of meat processing include salting, curing, fermentation, smoking, and/or the addition of chemical preservatives. Processed meat is usually composed of pork or beef or, less frequently, poultry. It can also contain offal or meat by-products such as blood. Processed meat products include bacon, ham, sausages, salami, corned beef, jerky, hot dogs, lunch meat, canned meat, chicken nuggets, and meat-based sauces. Meat processing includes all the processes that change fresh meat with the exception of simple mechanical processes such as cutting, grinding or mixing.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">White meat</span> Meat which is pale before and after cooking

In culinary terms, white meat is meat which is pale in color before and after cooking. In traditional gastronomy, white meat also includes rabbit, the flesh of milk-fed young mammals, and sometimes pork. In ecotrophology and nutritional studies, white meat includes poultry and fish, but excludes all mammal flesh, which is considered red meat.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Whole grain</span> Cereal containing endosperm, germ, and bran

A whole grain is a grain of any cereal and pseudocereal that contains the endosperm, germ, and bran, in contrast to refined grains, which retain only the endosperm.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Diet and cancer</span> Connections between dietary habits and cancer

Many dietary recommendations have been proposed to reduce the risk of cancer, few have significant supporting scientific evidence. Obesity and drinking alcohol have been correlated with the incidence and progression of some cancers. Lowering the consumption of sweetened beverages is recommended as a measure to address obesity.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Western pattern diet</span> Modern dietary pattern

The Western pattern diet is a modern dietary pattern that is generally characterized by high intakes of pre-packaged foods, refined grains, red meat, processed meat, high-sugar drinks, candy and sweets, fried foods, industrially produced animal products, butter and other high-fat dairy products, eggs, potatoes, corn, and low intakes of fruits, vegetables, whole grains, pasture-raised animal products, fish, nuts, and seeds.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Animal source foods</span> Food that comes from animals

Animal source foods (ASF) include many food items that come from an animal source such as fish, meat, dairy, eggs and honey. Many individuals consume little ASF or even none for long periods of time by either personal choice or necessity, as ASF may not be accessible or available to these people.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Eggs as food</span> Edible animal product

Humans and their hominid relatives have consumed eggs for millions of years. The most widely consumed eggs are those of fowl, especially chickens. People in Southeast Asia began harvesting chicken eggs for food by 1500 BCE. Eggs of other birds, such as ducks and ostriches, are eaten regularly but much less commonly than those of chickens. People may also eat the eggs of reptiles, amphibians, and fish. Fish eggs consumed as food are known as roe or caviar.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Diet and obesity</span> Effect of diet on obesity

Diet plays an important role in the genesis of obesity. Personal choices, food advertising, social customs and cultural influences, as well as food availability and pricing all play a role in determining what and how much an individual eats.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Heterocyclic amine formation in meat</span>

Heterocyclic amines are a group of chemical compounds, many of which can be formed during cooking. They are found in meats that are cooked to the "well done" stage, in pan drippings and in meat surfaces that show a brown or black crust. Epidemiological studies show associations between intakes of heterocyclic amines and cancers of the colon, rectum, breast, prostate, pancreas, lung, stomach, and esophagus, and animal feeding experiments support a causal relationship. The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Public Health Service labeled several heterocyclic amines as likely carcinogens in its 13th Report on Carcinogens. Changes in cooking techniques reduce the level of heterocyclic amines.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sweetened beverage</span> Type of beverage

Sugar-sweetened beverages (SSB) are beverages with added sugar. They have been described as "liquid candy". Added sugars include brown sugar, corn sweetener, corn syrup, dextrose, fructose, high fructose corn syrup, honey, invert sugar, lactose, malt syrup, maltose, molasses, raw sugar, sucrose, trehalose, and turbinado sugar. Naturally occurring sugars, such as those in fruit or milk, are not considered to be added sugars. Free sugars include monosaccharides and disaccharides added to foods and beverages by the manufacturer, cook or consumer, and sugars naturally present in honey, syrups, fruit juices and fruit juice concentrates.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Frank Hu</span> Nutrition researcher

Frank B. Hu is a Chinese American nutrition and diabetes researcher. He is Chair of the Department of Nutrition and the Fredrick J. Stare Professor of Nutrition and Epidemiology at the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, and Professor of Medicine at the Harvard Medical School.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Preventive nutrition</span> Branch of nutrition science

Preventive Nutrition is a branch of nutrition science with the goal of preventing, delaying, and/or reducing the impacts of disease and disease-related complications. It is concerned with a high level of personal well-being, disease prevention, and diagnosis of recurring health problems or symptoms of discomfort which are often precursors to health issues. The overweight and obese population numbers have increased over the last 40 years and numerous chronic diseases are associated with obesity. Preventive nutrition may assist in prolonging the onset of non-communicable diseases and may allow adults to experience more "healthy living years." There are various ways of educating the public about preventive nutrition. Information regarding preventive nutrition is often communicated through public health forums, government programs and policies, or nutritional education. For example, in the United States, preventive nutrition is taught to the public through the use of the food pyramid or MyPlate initiatives.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Health effects of ultra-processed foods</span>

Ultra-processed foods (UPFs) are industrially manufactured foods that are designed to be convenient, palatable, and affordable. These foods often contain multiple ingredients and additives such as preservatives, sweeteners, colorings, and emulsifiers, which are not typically found in home kitchens. They tend to be low in fiber and high in calories, salt, added sugar and fat, which are all related to poor health outcomes when eaten excessively. Common examples include packaged snacks, soft drinks, ready meals, and processed meats.

References

  1. ↑ "Red Meat". thefreedictionary.com.
  2. ↑ "White Meat". thefreedictionary.com.
  3. ↑ Reinagel M (2 January 2013). "Color Confusion: Identifying Red Meat and White Meat". Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics. Archived from the original on 30 December 2016. Retrieved 29 April 2017.
  4. 1 2 Larousse Gastronomique, first edition
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Penner KP, Clarke MP (September 1990). "Red Meats: Nutrient Contributions to the Diet". Iowa State Animal Science. Archived from the original on 24 March 2009. Retrieved 16 September 2009.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 6 "USDA-Safety of Fresh Pork...from Farm to Table". Fsis.usda.gov. 16 May 2008. Archived from the original on 18 September 2013. Retrieved 16 September 2009.
  7. ↑ Çelen, Mehmet Fatih; Söğüt, Bünyamin; Zorba, Ömer; Demirulus, Hüsrev; Tekeli, Ahmet (August 2016). "Comparison of normal and PSE turkey breast meat for chemical composition, pH, color, myoglobin, and drip loss". Revista Brasileira de Zootecnia. 45 (8): 441–444. doi: 10.1590/S1806-92902016000800003 . ISSN   1516-3598.
  8. ↑ "Are ratites "red" or "white" meat?". AskUSDA. US Department of Agriculture. 17 July 2019.
  9. ↑ Larousse Gastronomique, 1961, s.v. pork
  10. ↑ "The color of meat depends on myoglobin: Part 1". MSU Extension. 10 October 2014. Retrieved 24 August 2023.
  11. ↑ Keeton, Jimmy T.; Dikeman, Michael E. (October 2017). "'Red' and 'white' meats—terms that lead to confusion". Animal Frontiers. 7 (4): 29–33. doi: 10.2527/af.2017.0440 .
  12. ↑ "How do you cook ratites? - Ask USDA". AskUSDA.gov. Retrieved 31 July 2024.
  13. ↑ Dougherty PH (15 January 1987). "Dressing Pork for Success". The New York Times . Archived from the original on 14 February 2017.
  14. ↑ Hall T (13 November 1991). "And This Little Piggy Is Now on the Menu". The New York Times . Archived from the original on 14 February 2017.
  15. ↑ "Red Meats: Nutrient Contributions to the Diet" (PDF). Kansas State University Agricultural Experiment Station and Cooperative Extension Service. September 1990. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 September 2006.
  16. ↑ Williams PG (September 2007). "Nutritional composition of red meat". University of Wollongong. Archived from the original on 10 March 2011.
  17. ↑ Schmid A, Walther B (July 2013). "Natural vitamin D content in animal products". Advances in Nutrition. 4 (4): 453–62. doi:10.3945/an.113.003780. PMC   3941824 . PMID   23858093.
  18. 1 2 3 "Food Pyramids: What Should You Really Eat". Harvard School of Public Health. 2012. Archived from the original on 16 April 2009.
  19. ↑ "MyPlate Protein foods". USDA. Archived from the original on 16 January 2013.
  20. ↑ Meinilä J, Virtanen JK (2024). "Meat and meat products – a scoping review for Nordic Nutrition Recommendations 2023". Food Nutr Res. 21: 68. doi:10.29219/fnr.v68.10538. PMC   10916397 . PMID   38449706.
  21. 1 2 3 4 Qian, Frank; Riddle, Matthew C.; Wylie-Rosett, Judith; Hu, Frank B. (2020). "Red and Processed Meats and Health Risks: How Strong is the Evidence?". Diabetes Care. 43 (2): 265–271. doi:10.2337/dci19-0063. PMC   6971786 . PMID   31959642.
  22. 1 2 "Meat, fish and dairy products and the risk of cancer" (PDF). World Cancer Research Fund. 2018. Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 December 2024.
  23. ↑ Abete, Itziar; Romaguera, Dora; Vieira, Ana Rita; Munain, Adolfo Lopez de; Norat, Teresa (September 2014). "Association between total, processed, red and white meat consumption and all-cause, CVD and IHD mortality: a meta-analysis of cohort studies". British Journal of Nutrition. 112 (5): 762–775. doi: 10.1017/S000711451400124X . ISSN   0007-1145. PMID   24932617. S2CID   14401281.
  24. ↑ Neuenschwander, Manuela; Ballon, Aurélie; Weber, Katharina S.; Norat, Teresa; Aune, Dagfinn; Schwingshackl, Lukas; Schlesinger, Sabrina (3 July 2019). "Role of diet in type 2 diabetes incidence: umbrella review of meta-analyses of prospective observational studies". BMJ. 366: l2368. doi:10.1136/bmj.l2368. ISSN   0959-8138. PMC   6607211 . PMID   31270064.
  25. ↑ Mozaffarian, Dariush (12 January 2016). "Dietary and Policy Priorities for Cardiovascular Disease, Diabetes, and Obesity". Circulation. 133 (2): 187–225. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.115.018585. PMC   4814348 . PMID   26746178.
  26. 1 2 3 International Agency for Research on Cancer (26 October 2015), IARC Monographs evaluate consumption of red meat and processed meat (PDF), archived (PDF) from the original on 10 November 2015
  27. ↑ Zheng, W.; Gustafson, D. R.; Sinha, R.; Cerhan, J. R.; Moore, D.; Hong, C. P.; Anderson, K. E.; Kushi, L. H.; Sellers, T. A.; Folsom, A. R. (18 November 1998). "Well-done meat intake and the risk of breast cancer". Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 90 (22): 1724–1729. doi:10.1093/jnci/90.22.1724. ISSN   0027-8874. PMID   9827527.
  28. ↑ Farvid, Maryam S.; Sidahmed, Elkhansa; Spence, Nicholas D.; Mante Angua, Kingsly; Rosner, Bernard A.; Barnett, Junaidah B. (1 September 2021). "Consumption of red meat and processed meat and cancer incidence: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies". European Journal of Epidemiology. 36 (9): 937–951. doi:10.1007/s10654-021-00741-9. ISSN   1573-7284. PMID   34455534.
  29. ↑ Huang Y, Cao D, Chen Z, Chen B, Li J, Guo J, Dong Q, Liu L, Wei Q (September 2021). "Red and processed meat consumption and cancer outcomes: Umbrella review". Food Chem (Review). 356: 129697. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2021.129697. PMID   33838606.
  30. ↑ Lescinsky H, Afshin A, Ashbaugh C, Bisignano C, Brauer M, et al. (October 2022). "Health effects associated with consumption of unprocessed red meat: a Burden of Proof study". Nat Med (Systematic review). 28 (10): 2075–2082. doi:10.1038/s41591-022-01968-z. PMC   9556326 . PMID   36216940.
  31. ↑ Lewis, Tanya. "New System Ranks Evidence for Health Risks of Eating Red Meat, Smoking, and More—But Critics Say It's Overly Simplistic". Scientific American. Retrieved 21 December 2022.
  32. ↑ "Q&A on the carcinogenicity of the consumption of red meat and processed meat". World Health Organization. 1 October 2015. Retrieved 7 August 2019.
  33. ↑ "Press release: IARC monographs evaluate consumption of red meat and processed meat" (PDF). International Agency for Research on Cancer, World Health Organization. 15 October 2015. Retrieved 26 October 2015.
  34. ↑ Rock, Cheryl L.; Thomson, Cynthia; Gansler, Ted; Gapstur, Susan M.; McCullough, Marjorie L.; Patel, Alpa V.; Andrews, Kimberly S.; Bandera, Elisa V.; Spees, Colleen K.; Robien, Kimberly; Hartman, Sheri; Sullivan, Kristen; Grant, Barbara L.; Hamilton, Kathryn K.; Kushi, Lawrence H.; Caan, Bette J.; Kibbe, Debra; Black, Jessica Donze; Wiedt, Tracy L.; McMahon, Catherine; Sloan, Kirsten; Doyle, Colleen (2020). "American Cancer Society guideline for diet and physical activity for cancer prevention". CA. 70 (4): 245–271. doi: 10.3322/caac.21591 . PMID   32515498. S2CID   219550658.
  35. ↑ "Does eating processed and red meat cause cancer?". Cancer Research UK. 25 June 2019. Retrieved 30 December 2022.
  36. ↑ "Red Meat (Beef, Pork, Lamb): Increases Risk of Colorectal Cancer". American Institute for Cancer Research. Retrieved 30 December 2022.
  37. ↑ "Limit red and processed meat". WCRF International. Retrieved 30 December 2022.
  38. ↑ "Bacon, salami and sausages: How does processed and red meat cause cancer and how much matters?". news.cancerresearchuk.org. Retrieved 20 June 2023.
  39. ↑ Di, Yan; Ding, Lei; Gao, Luying; Haung, Hongya (2023). "Association of meat consumption with the risk of gastrointestinal cancers: a systematic review and meta-analysis". BMC Cancer. 23 (1): 782. doi: 10.1186/s12885-023-11218-1 . PMC   10463360 . PMID   37612616.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  40. ↑ Poorolajal J, Mohammadi Y, Fattahi-Darghlou M, Almasi-Moghadam F. (2024). "The association between major gastrointestinal cancers and red and processed meat and fish consumption: A systematic review and meta-analysis of the observational studies". PLOS ONE. 19 (6): e0305994. Bibcode:2024PLoSO..1905994P. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0305994 . PMC   11207151 . PMID   38924054.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  41. ↑ Bastide, N. M.; Pierre, F. H.; Corpet, D. E. (2011). "Heme iron from meat and risk of colorectal cancer: a meta-analysis and a review of the mechanisms involved" (PDF). Cancer Prev. Res. 4 (2): 177–184. doi:10.1158/1940-6207.CAPR-10-0113. PMID   21209396. S2CID   4951579. Archived (PDF) from the original on 25 September 2015.
  42. ↑ Demeyer, D.; Mertens, B.; De Smet, S.; Ulens, M. (2016). "Mechanisms Linking Colorectal Cancer to the Consumption of (Processed) Red Meat: A Review". Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 56 (16): 2747–2766. doi:10.1080/10408398.2013.873886. hdl: 1854/LU-8518004 . PMID   25975275.
  43. ↑ Wang, J.; Shewell, L.K.; Day, C.J.; Jennings, M.P. (2023). "N-glycolylneuraminic acid as a carbohydrate cancer biomarker". Translational Oncology. 31: 101643. doi:10.1016/j.tranon.2023.101643. hdl: 10072/428860 . PMC   9971276 . PMID   36805917.
  44. ↑ Liang, M.; Wu, J.; Li, H.; Zhu, Q. (2024). "N-glycolylneuraminic acid in red meat and processed meat is a health concern: A review on the formation, health risk, and reduction". Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety. 32 (2): e13314. doi:10.1111/1541-4337.13314. PMID   38389429.
  45. ↑ Jeyakumar A, Dissabandara L, Gopalan V (April 2017). "A critical overview on the biological and molecular features of red and processed meat in colorectal carcinogenesis". Journal of Gastroenterology. 52 (4): 407–418. doi:10.1007/s00535-016-1294-x. PMID   27913919. S2CID   20865644.
  46. ↑ "Chemicals in Meat Cooked at High Temperatures and Cancer Risk". National Cancer Institute. 2018. Archived from the original on 6 November 2011.
  47. 1 2 "Red meat and poultry". assets.heartfoundation.org.nz. Retrieved 25 October 2023.
  48. ↑ Zhang X, Liang S, Chen X, Yang J, Zhou Y, Du L, Li K (December 2022). "Red/processed meat consumption and noncancer-related outcomes in humans: Umbrella review". Br J Nutr. 130 (3): 484–494. doi: 10.1017/S0007114522003415 . PMID   36545687.
  49. ↑ Kim K, Hyeon J, Lee SA, Kwon SO, Lee H, Keum N, et al. (August 2017). "Role of Total, Red, Processed, and White Meat Consumption in Stroke Incidence and Mortality: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Prospective Cohort Studies". Journal of the American Heart Association. 6 (9): e005983. doi:10.1161/jaha.117.005983. PMC   5634267 . PMID   28855166.
  50. ↑ "Is meat good for you?". heartfoundation.org.nz. Retrieved 25 October 2023.
  51. ↑ Wenming Shi, Xin Huang, C Mary Schooling, Jie V Zhao (2023). "Red meat consumption, cardiovascular diseases, and diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis". European Heart Journal. 44 (28): 2626–2635. doi: 10.1093/eurheartj/ehad336 . PMID   37264855.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  52. ↑ Giosuè A, Calabrese I, Riccardi G, Vaccaro O, Vitale M (September 2022). "Consumption of different animal-based foods and risk of type 2 diabetes: An umbrella review of meta-analyses of prospective studies". Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice. 191: 110071. doi:10.1016/j.diabres.2022.110071. PMID   36067917. S2CID   252107061.
  53. ↑ Li C, Bishop TRP, Imamura F, Sharp SJ, Pearce M, Brage S, Ong KK, Ahsan H, Bes-Rastrollo M, Beulens JWJ, den Braver N, Byberg L, Canhada S, Chen Z, Chung HF, Cortés-Valencia A, Djousse L, Drouin-Chartier JP, Du H, Du S, Duncan BB, Gaziano JM, Gordon-Larsen P, Goto A, Haghighatdoost F, Härkänen T, Hashemian M, Hu FB, Ittermann T, Järvinen R, Kakkoura MG, Neelakantan N, Knekt P, Lajous M, Li Y, Magliano DJ, Malekzadeh R, Le Marchand L, Marques-Vidal P, Martinez-Gonzalez MA, Maskarinec G, Mishra GD, Mohammadifard N, O'Donoghue G, O'Gorman D, Popkin B, Poustchi H, Sarrafzadegan N, Sawada N, Schmidt MI, Shaw JE, Soedamah-Muthu S, Stern D, Tong L, van Dam RM, Völzke H, Willett WC, Wolk A, Yu C. (2024). "Meat consumption and incident type 2 diabetes: an individual-participant federated meta-analysis of 1·97 million adults with 100 000 incident cases from 31 cohorts in 20 countries". The Lancet Diabetes & Endocrinology. 12 (9): 619–630. doi:10.1016/S2213-8587(24)00179-7. PMID   39174161.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  54. ↑ Schwingshackl L, Hoffmann G, Lampousi AM, Knüppel S, Iqbal K, Schwedhelm C, et al. (May 2017). "Food groups and risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies". European Journal of Epidemiology. 32 (5): 363–375. doi:10.1007/s10654-017-0246-y. PMC   5506108 . PMID   28397016.
  55. ↑ Pan A, Sun Q, Bernstein AM, Schulze MB, Manson JE, Willett WC, Hu FB (October 2011). "Red meat consumption and risk of type 2 diabetes: 3 cohorts of US adults and an updated meta-analysis". The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 94 (4): 1088–96. doi:10.3945/ajcn.111.018978. PMC   3173026 . PMID   21831992.
  56. ↑ Zhang, Xingxia; Liang, Shiqi; Chen, Xinrong; Yang, Jie; Zhou, Yong; Du, Liang; Li, Ka (n.d.). "Red/processed meat consumption and noncancer-related outcomes in humans: Umbrella review". British Journal of Nutrition. 130 (3): 484–494. doi: 10.1017/S0007114522003415 . ISSN   0007-1145. PMID   36545687.
  57. ↑ Reynolds, Andrew; Aas, Anne-Marie; Axelsen, Mette; Churuangsuk, Chaitong (2023). "Evidence-based European recommendations for the dietary management of diabetes". Diabetologia. 66 (6): 965–985. doi: 10.1007/s00125-023-05894-8 . PMID   37069434.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  58. ↑ Talebi S, Zeraattalab-Motlagh S, Rahimlou M, Naeini F, Ranjbar M, Talebi A, Mohammadi H. (2023). "The Association between Total Protein, Animal Protein, and Animal Protein Sources with Risk of Inflammatory Bowel Diseases: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Cohort Studies". Advances in Nutrition. 14 (4): 752–761. doi:10.1016/j.advnut.2023.05.008. PMC   10334156 . PMID   37187455.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  59. ↑ Christensen C, Knudsen A, Arnesen EK, Hatlebakk JG, Sletten IS, Fadnes LT. (2024). "Diet, Food, and Nutritional Exposures and Inflammatory Bowel Disease or Progression of Disease: an Umbrella Review". Advances in Nutrition. 15 (5): 100219. doi:10.1016/j.advnut.2024.100219. PMC   11063602 . PMID   38599319.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  60. ↑ Hashash JG, Elkins J, Lewis JD, Binion DG. (2024). "AGA Clinical Practice Update on Diet and Nutritional Therapies in Patients With Inflammatory Bowel Disease: Expert Review". Gastroenterology. 166 (3): 521–532. doi:10.1053/j.gastro.2023.11.303. PMID   38276922.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.