Hermetia illucens

Last updated

Hermetia illucens
Hermetia illucens MHNT Fronton.jpg
Hermetia illucens on a rose
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Diptera
Family: Stratiomyidae
Subfamily: Hermetiinae
Genus: Hermetia
Species:
H. illucens
Binomial name
Hermetia illucens
Synonyms [2]
List

Hermetia illucens, the black soldier fly, is a common and widespread fly of the family Stratiomyidae. Since the late 20th century, H. illucens has increasingly been gaining attention because of its usefulness for recycling organic waste and generating animal feed. [9]

Contents

Distribution

A black soldier fly on a crape jasmine leaf, in West Bengal, India A black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) on a crape jasmime leaf.jpg
A black soldier fly on a crape jasmine leaf, in West Bengal, India

This species is native to the Neotropical realm, but in recent decades has spread across all continents, becoming virtually cosmopolitan. [10] It is present in most of North America and Europe, including the Iberian Peninsula, southern France, Italy, Croatia, Malta, the Canary Islands, and Switzerland, and on the Black Sea coast of Russia in the Krasnodar Territory. [11] It can also be found in the Afrotropical realm, the Australasian realm, the east Palaearctic realm, the Nearctic realm, North Africa, Southern Africa, and the Indomalayan realm. [12] [13]

Description

Adult of Hermetia illucens, side view Stratiomyidae - Hermetia illucens.JPG
Adult of Hermetia illucens, side view

The adults of H. illucens measure about 16 millimetres (5⁄8 in) long. [14] These medium-sized flies have a predominantly black body, with metallic reflections ranging from blue to green on the thorax and sometimes with a reddish end of the abdomen. The second abdominal tergite has translucent areas, from which the Latin specific epithet derives. The head is wide, with very developed eyes. The antennae are about twice the length of the head. The legs are black with whitish tarsi. The wings are membranous; at rest, they are folded horizontally on the abdomen and overlapped. [15]

H. illucens is a mimic fly, very close in size, color, and appearance to the organ pipe mud dauber wasp and its relatives. The mimicry of this particular kind of wasp is especially enhanced in that the fly's antennae are elongated and wasp-like, the fly's hind tarsi are pale, as are the wasp's, and the fly has two small, transparent "windows" in the basal abdominal segments that make the fly appear to have a narrow "wasp waist". [15] Black soldier fly larvae can be differentiated from blowfly or housefly larvae by a thin gray-black stripe on their posterior ends.

Lifecycle

Black soldier fly larvae Hermetiaillucens.jpg
Black soldier fly larvae

An adult female lays approximately 200 to 600 eggs at a time. [16] These eggs are typically deposited in crevices or on surfaces above or adjacent to decaying matter such as manure or compost, and hatch in about 4 days. [17] Freshly emerged larvae are 1.0 millimetre (0.04 in) long, being able to reach a length of 25 millimetres (1 in) and weight of 0.10 to 0.22 grams (1.5 to 3.4 gr) by the end of larval stage. [15] The larvae are able to feed on a wide variety of organic matter, [18] [19] [20] [21] adapting to diets with different nutrient content. [22] The larval stage lasts from 18 to 36 days, depending on the food substrates provided to the larvae, [16] [23] of which the postfeeding (prepupal) stage lasts around 7 days. [24] The length of larval stage can be delayed by months due to low temperature or lack of food. [17] The pupal stage lasts from 1 to 2 weeks. [24] [25] Adults can live typically 47 to 73 days when provided with water and food, such as sugar in captivity or nectar in the wild, [26] [27] or survive for about 8 to 10 days on fat reserves gathered during larval stage when water is provided. [16]

Black soldier flies mating Black soldier flies mating.jpg
Black soldier flies mating
Black soldier fly depositing eggs in cardboard Black soldier fly depositing eggs in cardboard.jpg
Black soldier fly depositing eggs in cardboard
Garden soldier fly depositing eggs in wormfarm Black-soldier-fly-depositing-eggs-in-wormfarm.jpg
Garden soldier fly depositing eggs in wormfarm
Black soldier fly inflating its wings during the first 15 minutes after emergence from pupation Black soldier fly inflating wings.jpg
Black soldier fly inflating its wings during the first 15 minutes after emergence from pupation
Black soldier flies feeding on sugar Bsffeeding.jpg
Black soldier flies feeding on sugar

Human relevance and use

The larvae and adults are considered neither pests nor vectors. Instead, black soldier fly larvae play a role similar to that of redworms as essential decomposers in breaking down organic substrates and returning nutrients to the soil. The larvae have voracious appetites and can be used for composting household food scraps and agricultural waste products.

Additionally, black soldier fly larvae are an alternative source of protein for aquaculture, animal feed, and pet food. [18] [28]

The larvae are produced and processed in industrial-scale insect factories globally by biotechnology companies such as InnovaFeed and Protix, the latter operating the world's largest insect factory farm in the Netherlands. [29]

As decomposers/in composting

Black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) are used to compost waste or convert the waste into animal feed. The wastes include fresh manure and food wastes of both animal and vegetable origin. Fly larvae are among the most efficient animals at converting biomass into feed. [30]

When the larvae have completed their larval development through six instars, [31] they enter a stage called the "prepupa" wherein they cease to eat, and they tend to migrate toward cool, dark, and dry substrates to pupate. [32] This prepupal migration instinct is used by grub composting bins to self-harvest the mature larvae. These containers have ramps or holes on the sides to allow the prepupae to climb out of the composter and drop into a collection area.

Larvae are beneficial in these ways:

Aside from the protein production, fly larvae also produce another valuable resource called frass. Fly larval frass is a granulated and odorless residue that can be used as organic fertilizer directly [38] or through conversion by earthworms. [39]

Recent research in the field of entomoremediation shows the potential of this insect for purification of biomass contaminated with heavy metals. [40]

As feed

Black soldier fly larvae are used as feed. The harvested pupae and prepupae are eaten by poultry, fish, pigs, lizards, turtles, and even dogs. [41] [42] The insect is one of the few insect species approved to be used as feed in aquaculture in the EU. [43]

At the pupal stage, black soldier flies are at their nutritional peak. [15] [ citation needed ] They can be stored at room temperature for several weeks, and their longest shelf life is achieved at 10 to 16 °C (50 to 60 °F). [44]

As human food

Records of human consumption of H. illucens are difficult to find. [21]

In 2013, Austrian designer Katharina Unger invented a table-top insect-breeding farm called "Farm 432" in which people can produce edible fly larvae at home. [45] It is a multichambered plastic machine that looks like a kitchen appliance and can produce 500 grams (1.1 lb) of larvae or two meals in a week.

The taste of the larvae is said to be very distinctive. Unger: "When you cook them, they smell a bit like cooked potatoes. The consistency is a bit harder on the outside and like soft meat on the inside. The taste is nutty and a bit meaty. [46]

For producing grease

BSFL can be used to produce grease, which is usable in the pharmaceutical industry (cosmetics, [47] surfactants for shower gel), thereby replacing other vegetable oils such as palm oil, or it can be used in fodder. [48] [49]

For producing chitin

BSFL can be used to produce chitin. Chitin is used in shipping as an agent against biofouling. It is also used in water purification. [48] [49] Chitin also has potential as a soil amendment, to improve soil fertility and plant resilience. [50] [51]

For producing organic plant fertilizer

The residues from the decomposition process (frass) by the larvae comprise larval faeces, shed larval exoskeletons, and undigested material. Frass is one of the main products from commercial black soldier fly rearing. [52] The chemical profile of the frass varies with the substrate on which the larvae feed, but in general, it is considered a versatile organic plant fertilizer due to a favorable ratio of three major plant nutrients nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. [53] The frass is commonly applied by direct mixing with soil and considered a long-term fertilizer with slow nutrient release. [53] Plant trials, though, have found also short-term fertilizing effects comparable to fast-acting, synthetic fertilizers. [54] [55] Next to its nutrient contribution, the frass can carry further components that are beneficial for soil fertility and soil health. One of them is the soil improver chitin [51] [50] which gets via chitin-rich shed exoskeletons of the larvae into the frass. Moreover, the frass from black soldier fly rearing applied as a fertilizer can effectively alter the soil microbial community composition, which plays a crucial role for soil fertility. [56] [57]

Debate is going on whether the frass from BSFL rearing can be used as a fertilizer in a fresh state or has to undergo further composting before its application. Some assume that further composting would lead to the reduction of potential phytotoxic properties. [58] In the European Union, insect frass has to be treated for one hour at 70 °C (158 °F) before commercialization for safety reasons, whereas the same applies to animal manure in general. [59]

In bioremediation

The larvae of H. illucens were used in a bioremediation experiment, in which they used up to 49% of dry weight corn leaves polluted with cadmium or zinc, for 36 days. [40] Artificially polluted corn leaves serves here as a model plant material comparable to plant biomass polluted as a result of phytoextraction. The 49% loss of polluted dry weight is a better result than in the case of composting, which is one of the standard proposed pretreatments for biomass polluted after phytoextraction. The type of heavy metal did not affect the degree of use. Cadmium mostly accumulates in the puparium, while zinc accumulates in the adult fly. [40] The use of insect for bioremediation is named entomoremediation. [40] [60]

Potential source of plastic-degrading enzymes and bacteria

It has been stated that H. illucens larval gut microbiota represents an optimal ecological niche for isolating enzymes and microbial strains with optimized plastic-degrading ability. [61]

Potential use in biodiesel production

H. illucens could be a feasible feedstock for biodiesel production. [62] [63]

Farming

Larval colonies

The main difficulty in farming is obtaining BSFL or eggs to start or replenish the colony. This is usually done by enticing the soldier flies to lay eggs in small holes over the grub bin. Adult flies lay clusters of eggs in the edges of corrugated cardboard or corrugated plastic. In some regions, starting or maintaining adequate larvae colonies is possible from native soldier flies, but pest species such as houseflies and blowflies are also drawn to many of the foods used to attract soldier flies (such as fermented chicken feed).

In tropical or subtropical climates, they might breed year-round, but in other climates, a greenhouse may be needed to obtain eggs in the cooler periods. The grubs are quite hardy and can handle more acidic conditions and higher temperatures than redworms. Larvae can survive cold winters, particularly with large numbers of grubs, insulation, or compost heat (generated by the microorganisms in the grub bin or compost pile). Heat stimulates the grubs to crawl off, pupate, and hatch, and a great deal of light and heat seem to be required for breeding. Many small-scale grub farmers build their larval colonies from eggs deposited by wild soldier flies.

Space and shape

Newly emerged soldier flies perform the beginning of their mating ritual in flight. The male grabs onto the female, and then grasps the female's ovipositor with his genitals. They mate while stationary and connected.

German scientists have successfully bred soldier flies in a space as small as 10 liters. [64] [65]

Heat

Adults typically mated and oviposited at temperatures of 24 to 40 °C (75 to 104 °F) or more. Around 99.6% of oviposition in the field occurred at 27.5 to 37.5 °C (81.5 to 99.5 °F). [66]

Light

Quartz-iodine lamps have been successfully used to stimulate mating of adults. [67] In particular, mating success of reared black soldier fly can be dramatically increased by exposing the adults to light that is particularly rich in wavelengths near 440 and/or 540 nm and has an irradiance that is an appreciable fraction of the intensity of full sunlight. [68] In tropical conditions, morning direct sunlight is optimal for emergence, mating, and egglaying, with indirect sunlight often preferred before and after mating. [69]

Humidity

Humidity at 70% is considered optimal for all stages of their lifecycle. [70]

Substrate was found to be unnecessary for pupation, but substrate is thought to act as a regulator for humidity, which prevents desiccation. A 93% emergence rate was observed when humidity was held at 70%. [71]

Black soldier fly larvae and redworms

Redworm farmers often get larvae in their worm bins. Larvae are best at quickly converting "high-nutrient" waste into animal feed. [72] Redworms are better at converting high-cellulose materials (paper, cardboard, leaves, plant materials except wood) into an excellent soil amendment.

Redworms thrive on the residue produced by the fly larvae, but larvae leachate ("tea") contains enzymes and tends to be too acidic for worms. The activity of larvae can keep temperatures around 37 °C (99 °F), while redworms require cooler temperatures. Most attempts to raise large numbers of larvae with redworms in the same container, at the same time, are unsuccessful. Worms have been able to survive in/under grub bins when the bottom is the ground. Redworms can live in grub bins when a large number of larvae are not present. Worms can be added if the larval population gets low (in the cold season) and worms can be raised in grub bins while awaiting eggs from wild black soldier flies.

As a feeder species, BSFL are not known to be intermediate hosts of parasitic worms that infect poultry, while redworms are host to many. [73]

Names and trademarks

BSFL were developed as a feeder insect for exotic pets by D. Craig Sheppard, who named the larvae Phoenix Worms and began marketing them as pet food. In 2006, Phoenix Worms became the first feeder insect to be granted a U.S. registered trademark. Other companies also market BSFL under such brand names as NutriGrubs, Soldier Grubs, Reptiworms, Calciworms, BIOgrubs, and Obie's Worms (Canada). In Africa, they are marketed as live feeder, meal and oil by ProtiCycle for animal feed, pet food for dogs and cats, and food for fish such as tilapia and catfish.

Possible natural enemies

In West Africa, Dirhinus giffardii has been found to be a parasitoid of H. illucens pupae and decrease egg production. It has been found to reduce stocks by up to 72%. The parasite is carried by the wasps and precautions should be taken to protect the larvae from exposure to these wasps. [74] Also the Chalcididae Eniacomorpha hermetiae has been described as a parasitoid of H. illucens that may negatively impact efforts of mass production in Africa. [75]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fly</span> Order of insects

Flies are insects of the order Diptera, the name being derived from the Greek δι- di- "two", and πτερόν pteron "wing". Insects of this order use only a single pair of wings to fly, the hindwings having evolved into advanced mechanosensory organs known as halteres, which act as high-speed sensors of rotational movement and allow dipterans to perform advanced aerobatics. Diptera is a large order containing an estimated 1,000,000 species including horse-flies, crane flies, hoverflies, mosquitoes and others, although only about 125,000 species have been described.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Maggot</span> Larva of a fly

A maggot is the larva of a fly ; it is applied in particular to the larvae of Brachycera flies, such as houseflies, cheese flies, and blowflies, rather than larvae of the Nematocera, such as mosquitoes and crane flies.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Myiasis</span> Infestation of parasitic maggots

Myiasis, also known as flystrike or fly strike, is the parasitic infestation of the body of a live animal by fly larvae (maggots) that grow inside the host while feeding on its tissue. Although flies are most commonly attracted to open wounds and urine- or feces-soaked fur, some species can create an infestation even on unbroken skin. Non-myiatic flies can be responsible for accidental myiasis.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Common green bottle fly</span> Species of insect

The common green bottle fly is a blowfly found in most areas of the world and is the most well-known of the numerous green bottle fly species. Its body is 10–14 mm (0.39–0.55 in) in length – slightly larger than a house fly – and has brilliant, metallic, blue-green or golden coloration with black markings. It has short, sparse, black bristles (setae) and three cross-grooves on the thorax. The wings are clear with light brown veins, and the legs and antennae are black. The larvae of the fly may be used for maggot therapy, are commonly used in forensic entomology, and can be the cause of myiasis in livestock and pets. The common green bottle fly emerges in the spring for mating.

Bioconversion, also known as biotransformation, is the conversion of organic materials, such as plant or animal waste, into usable products or energy sources by biological processes or agents, such as certain microorganisms. One example is the industrial production of cortisone, which one step is the bioconversion of progesterone to 11-alpha-Hydroxyprogesterone by Rhizopus nigricans. Another example is the bioconversion of glycerol to 1,3-propanediol, which is part of scientific research for many decades.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Stratiomyidae</span> Family of flies

The soldier flies are a family of flies. The family contains over 2,700 species in over 380 extant genera worldwide. Larvae are found in a wide array of locations, mostly in wetlands, damp places in soil, sod, under bark, in animal excrement, and in decaying organic matter. Adults are found near larval habitats. They are diverse in size and shape, though they commonly are partly or wholly metallic green, or somewhat wasplike mimics, marked with black and yellow or green and sometimes metallic. They are often rather inactive flies which typically rest with their wings placed one above the other over the abdomen.

<i>Chrysomya putoria</i> Species of fly

Chrysomya putoria, also known as the tropical African latrine blowfly, is a fly species belonging to the blowfly family, Calliphoridae.C. putoria is native to Africa and has recently spread to the Americas. These flies pose significant health risks, especially due to their close association with human settlements. Adult flies can carry pathogens, while larvae may cause myiasis by growing and feeding on the flesh of domestic animals and humans. Other myiasis-causing flies in the same genus are C. bezziana and C. megacephala. C. putoria and other flies that feed on decomposing tissue are used as important tools in forensic entomology to establish the post-mortem interval, or the time elapsed since death.

<i>Calliphora vomitoria</i> Species of fly

Calliphora vomitoria, known as the blue bottle fly, orange-bearded blue bottle, or bottlebee, is a species of blow fly, a species in the family Calliphoridae. Calliphora vomitoria is the type species of the genus Calliphora. It is common throughout many continents including Europe, Americas, and Africa. They are fairly large flies, nearly twice the size of the housefly, with a metallic blue abdomen and long orange setae on the gena.

<i>Haematobia irritans</i> Species of fly

Haematobia irritans, the horn fly, is a small fly. It was first described by Carl Linnaeus in his 1758 10th edition of Systema Naturae. It is of the genus Haematobia which is the European genus of bloodsucking flies. Haematobia irritans is a native of Europe but has been introduced to North America and is considered a potentially dangerous livestock pest.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Housefly</span> Species of insect

The housefly is a fly of the suborder Cyclorrhapha. It possibly originated in the Middle East, and spread around the world as a commensal of humans. It is the most common fly species found in houses. Adults are gray to black, with four dark, longitudinal lines on the thorax, slightly hairy bodies, and a single pair of membranous wings. They have red eyes, set farther apart in the slightly larger female.

<i>Chrysomya albiceps</i> Species of fly

Chrysomya albiceps is a species belonging to the blow fly family, Calliphoridae.

<i>Beris</i> Genus of flies

Beris is a genus of flies in the family Stratiomyidae. They are also referred to as the false soldier fly. As described by Latreille in 1802, these are small to medium sized flies with metallic colors.

Diptera is an order of winged insects commonly known as flies. Diptera, which are one of the most successful groups of organisms on Earth, are very diverse biologically. None are truly marine but they occupy virtually every terrestrial niche. Many have co-evolved in association with plants and animals. The Diptera are a very significant group in the decomposition and degeneration of plant and animal matter, are instrumental in the breakdown and release of nutrients back into the soil, and whose larvae supplement the diet of higher agrarian organisms. They are also an important component in food chains.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Maggot farming</span> Growing maggots for industrial use

Maggot farming is the act of growing maggots for industry. It is distinct from vermicomposting, as no separate composting process is occurring and maggots are used to consume flesh, rather than earthworms to consume plant-based materials. Maggots are most heavily cultivated as a source of animal feed for livestock or fish.

<i>Exaireta spinigera</i> Species of fly

Exaireta spinigera commonly known as the garden soldier fly, blue soldier fly, and spiked lion fly in Russian. The species is a part of the Stratiomyidae family. The originally described holotype of the species was kept in the Berlin Museum and was discovered when Australia was still referred to as New Holland. The original taxonomic description of the species requires translation from German using the Fraktur alphabet.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">InnovaFeed</span> French biotechnology company

InnovaFeed SAS, a French biotechnology company founded in 2016, develops insect-breeding and -processing processes. It sells ingredients derived from insects for animal nutrition and in particular aquaculture.

Mallophora ruficauda is a species of parasitic robber fly in the family Asilidae, endemic to South and Central America. Like other robber flies, M. ruficauda is known for its aggressive behavior and predation upon other insects, especially bees. M. ruficauda mimics a bumblebee to fool predators into thinking it has a painful sting and is not worth eating.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Alexander Mathys</span>

Alexander Mathys is a German scientist specializing in sustainable food systems and food technology. He is a Professor in Sustainable Food Processing at ETH Zurich in Switzerland. His work primarily focuses on finding sustainable and nutritional food and animal feed alternatives that would improve the sustainability performance.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Insects as feed</span>

Insects as feed are insect species used as animal feed, either for livestock, including aquaculture, or as pet food.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Prepupa</span> Stage in insect life cycle between larva and pupa

The prepupa is a stage in the life cycle of certain insects, following the larva or nymph and preceding the pupa. It occurs in both holometabolous and hemimetabolous insects.

References

  1. 1 2 Linnaeus, C. (1758). Systema naturae... Ed. 10, Vol. 1. Holmiae [= Stockholm]: L. Salvii. pp. 824 pp. Retrieved 14 November 2022.
  2. ↑ "ITIS Standard Report Page: Hermetia illucens". www.itis.gov.
  3. ↑ Linnaeus, C. (1767). Systema naturae ... Ed. 12 (revised.) Vol. 1 (2). Holmiae [= Stockholm]: L.Salvii. pp. 533-1327 + [37] pp.
  4. ↑ Fabricius, Johann Christian (1805). Systema antliatorum secundum ordines, genera, species. Bransvigae: Apud Carolum Reichard. pp. i–xiv, 1–373. Retrieved 5 June 2020.
  5. ↑ Bigot, J.M.F. (1879). "Diptères nouveaux ou peu connus. 11e partie. XVI. Curiae Xylophagidarum et Stratiomydarum (Bigot) [part]". Annales de la Société Entomologique de France. 9 (5): 183–208. Retrieved 7 December 2022.
  6. ↑ Macquart, P. J. M. (1834). Histoire Naturelle des insectes. Dipteres. Tome premiere. Paris: Roret. pp. 578 + 8 pp., 12 pls.
  7. ↑ Riley, C.V.; Howard, L.O. (1889). "Hermetia mucens infesting bee hives". Insect Life, Washington. 1: 353–354.
  8. ↑ Enderlein, G. (1914). "Dipterologische Studien. X. Zur Kenntnis der Stratiomyiiden mit 3astiger Media und ihre Gruppierung. B. Formen, bei denen der 1. Cubitalast mit der Discoidalzelle eine Streckeverschmolzen ist (Familien: Hermetiinae, Clitellariinae)". Zoologischer Anzeiger. 44 (1): 1–25. Retrieved 19 December 2022.
  9. ↑ Tomberlin, J.K.; van Huis, A. (2020-02-06). "Black soldier fly from pest to 'crown jewel' of the insects as feed industry: an historical perspective". Journal of Insects as Food and Feed. 6 (1): 1–4. doi:10.3920/JIFF2020.0003. ISSN   2352-4588. S2CID   214068576.
  10. ↑ Marshall, S.A.; Woodley, N.E.; Hauser, M. (2015). "The historical spread of the black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens (L.)(Diptera, Stratiomyidae, Hermetiinae), and its establishment in Canada". The Journal of the Entomological Society of Ontario. 146: 51–54.
  11. ↑ Gladun V. V. (2019). "The first record of Hermetia illucens (Diptera, Stratiomyidae) from Russia". Nature Conservation Research. 4 (4): 111–113. doi: 10.24189/ncr.2019.063 .
  12. ↑ "Fauna europaea".
  13. ↑ "black soldier fly – Hermetia illucens". entnemdept.ufl.edu.
  14. ↑ Savonen, Carol (2005-05-13). "Big maggots in your compost? They're soldier fly larvae". OSU Extension Service – Gardening. Oregon State University.
  15. 1 2 3 4 "black soldier fly – Hermetia illucens". University of Florida, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences. 2009-07-14. Retrieved 2019-10-08.
  16. 1 2 3 Tomberlin, Jeffery K.; Sheppard, D. Craig; Joyce, John A. (2002). "Selected Life-History Traits of Black Soldier Flies (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) Reared on Three Artificial Diets". Annals of the Entomological Society of America. 95 (3): 379–386. doi: 10.1603/0013-8746(2002)095[0379:slhtob]2.0.co;2 . S2CID   85705798.
  17. 1 2 Sheppard, D. Craig; Tomberlin, Jeffery K.; Joyce, John A.; Kiser, Barbara C.; Sumner, Sonya M. (2002). "Rearing Methods for the Black Soldier Fly (Diptera: Stratiomyidae): Table 1". Journal of Medical Entomology. 39 (4): 695–698. doi: 10.1603/0022-2585-39.4.695 . PMID   12144307.
  18. 1 2 Kuppusamy, Giva; Kong, Chee Kei; Segaran, Ganeswaran Chandra; Tarmalingam, Eliyarajan; Herriman, Max; Ismail, Mohd Fathil; Mehmood Khan, Tahir; Low, Liang Ee; Goh, Bey-Hing (2020). "Hummingbird-Leaves-Reared Black Soldier Fly Prepupae: Assessment of Nutritional and Heavy Metal Compositions". Biology. 9 (9): 274. doi: 10.3390/biology9090274 . PMC   7563170 . PMID   32899563.
  19. ↑ Spranghers, Thomas; Ottoboni, Matteo; Klootwijk, Cindy; Ovyn, Anneke; Deboosere, Stefaan; Meulenaer, Bruno De; Michiels, Joris; Eeckhout, Mia; Clercq, Patrick De; Smet, Stefaan De (2017). "Nutritional composition of black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) prepupae reared on different organic waste substrates". Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. 97 (8): 2594–2600. doi:10.1002/jsfa.8081. ISSN   1097-0010. PMID   27734508.
  20. ↑ Lalander, C.; Diener, S.; Zurbrügg, C.; Vinnerås, B. (2019-01-20). "Effects of feedstock on larval development and process efficiency in waste treatment with black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens)". Journal of Cleaner Production. 208: 211–219. doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.10.017 . ISSN   0959-6526.
  21. 1 2 Wang, Yu-Shiang; Shelomi, Matan (2017-10-18). "Review of Black Soldier Fly (Hermetia illucens) as Animal Feed and Human Food". Foods. 6 (10): 91. doi: 10.3390/foods6100091 . ISSN   2304-8158. PMC   5664030 . PMID   29057841.
  22. ↑ Bonelli, Marco; Bruno, Daniele; Brilli, Matteo; Gianfranceschi, Novella; Tian, Ling; Tettamanti, Gianluca; Caccia, Silvia; Casartelli, Morena (2020-07-13). "Black Soldier Fly Larvae Adapt to Different Food Substrates through Morphological and Functional Responses of the Midgut". International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 21 (14): 4955. doi: 10.3390/ijms21144955 . ISSN   1422-0067. PMC   7404193 . PMID   32668813.
  23. ↑ Bruno, Daniele; Bonelli, Marco; De Filippis, Francesca; Di Lelio, Ilaria; Tettamanti, Gianluca; Casartelli, Morena; Ercolini, Danilo; Caccia, Silvia (2018-11-30). McBain, Andrew J. (ed.). "The Intestinal Microbiota of Hermetia i llucens Larvae Is Affected by Diet and Shows a Diverse Composition in the Different Midgut Regions". Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 85 (2): e01864–18, /aem/85/2/AEM.01864–18.atom. doi:10.1128/AEM.01864-18. ISSN   0099-2240. PMC   6328772 . PMID   30504212.
  24. 1 2 Holmes, L. A.; Vanlaerhoven, S. L.; Tomberlin, J. K. (2013). "Substrate Effects on Pupation and Adult Emergence of Hermetia illucens (Diptera: Stratiomyidae): Table 1". Environmental Entomology. 42 (2): 370–374. doi:10.1603/en12255. PMID   23575028. S2CID   6375726.
  25. ↑ Tomberlin, Jeffery K.; Sheppard, D. Craig (2002). "Factors Influencing Mating and Oviposition of Black Soldier Flies (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) in a Colony". Journal of Entomological Science. 37 (4): 345–352. doi:10.18474/0749-8004-37.4.345.
  26. ↑ Nakamura, Satoshi; Ichiki, Ryoko T.; Shimoda, Masami; Morioka, Shinsuke (2016). "Small-scale rearing of the black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens (Diptera: Stratiomyidae), in the laboratory: Low-cost and year-round rearing". Applied Entomology and Zoology. 51: 161–166. doi:10.1007/s13355-015-0376-1. S2CID   52864114.
  27. ↑ Bruno, Daniele; Bonelli, Marco; Cadamuro, Agustin G.; Reguzzoni, Marcella; Grimaldi, Annalisa; Casartelli, Morena; Tettamanti, Gianluca (November 2019). "The digestive system of the adult Hermetia illucens (Diptera: Stratiomyidae): morphological features and functional properties". Cell and Tissue Research. 378 (2): 221–238. doi:10.1007/s00441-019-03025-7. ISSN   0302-766X. PMID   31053891. S2CID   143432117.
  28. ↑ Rumpold, Brigit A.; Schlüter, Olivier K. (2013). "Potential and challenges of insects as an innovative source for food and feed production". Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies. 17: 1–11. doi:10.1016/j.ifset.2012.11.005.
  29. ↑ Forbes/Davide Banis (14 June 2019): Can Using Insects As Animal Feed Reduce The Climate Impact Of Meat Production? .
  30. ↑ admin (2024-02-14). "Rearing black soldier flies for livestock feed". The Organic Farmer. Retrieved 2024-11-12.
  31. ↑ Barros, Luana Machado; Gutjahr, Ana Lúcia Nunes; Ferreira‐ Keppler, Ruth Leila; Martins, Renato Tavares (March 2019). "Morphological description of the immature stages of Hermetia illucens (Linnaeus, 1758) (Diptera: Stratiomyidae)". Microscopy Research and Technique. 82 (3): 178–189. doi:10.1002/jemt.23127. ISSN   1059-910X. PMID   30511417. S2CID   54566833.
  32. ↑ Holmes, L. A.; Vanlaerhoven, S. L.; Tomberlin, J. K. (2013-04-01). "Substrate Effects on Pupation and Adult Emergence of Hermetia illucens (Diptera: Stratiomyidae)". Environmental Entomology. 42 (2): 370–374. doi:10.1603/EN12255. ISSN   0046-225X. PMID   23575028. S2CID   6375726.
  33. 1 2 "Black Soldier Fly: Compiled Research On Best Cultivation Practices". Research Resources. 9 July 2008.
  34. ↑ Cranshaw, Whitney; Shetlar, David (2017). Garden Insects of North America: The Ultimate Guide to Backyard Bugs (2nd ed.). Princeton University Press. p. 510. ISBN   978-1-4008-8894-8.
  35. ↑ "Feeding Grubs to Birds EXPERIMENT". Archived from the original on 2017-09-01. Retrieved 2011-12-09.
  36. ↑ Erickson, Marilyn C.; Islam, Mahbub; Sheppard, Craig; Liao, Jean; Doyle, Michael P. (April 2004). "Reduction of Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis in chicken manure by larvae of the black soldier fly". Journal of Food Protection. 67 (4): 685–690. doi: 10.4315/0362-028x-67.4.685 . ISSN   0362-028X. PMID   15083719. S2CID   35561867.
  37. ↑ "Research Summary: Black Soldier Fly Prepupae – A Compelling Alternative to Fish Meal and Fish Oil". February 14, 2011. Archived from the original on August 19, 2014. Retrieved October 20, 2011.
  38. ↑ Lohri, Christian Riuji; Diener, Stefan; Zabaleta, Imanol; Mertenat, Adeline; Zurbrügg, Christian (2017-03-01). "Treatment technologies for urban solid biowaste to create value products: a review with focus on low- and middle-income settings". Reviews in Environmental Science and Bio/Technology. 16 (1): 81–130. doi: 10.1007/s11157-017-9422-5 . ISSN   1569-1705.
  39. ↑ Cappellozza, Silvia; Leonardi, Maria Giovanna; Savoldelli, Sara; Carminati, Domenico; Rizzolo, Anna; Cortellino, Giovanna; Terova, Genciana; Moretto, Enzo; Badaile, Andrea; Concheri, Giuseppe; Saviane, Alessio (2019-05-24). "A First Attempt to Produce Proteins from Insects by Means of a Circular Economy". Animals. 9 (5): 278. doi: 10.3390/ani9050278 . ISSN   2076-2615. PMC   6562786 . PMID   31137732.
  40. 1 2 3 4 Bulak, P.; et al. (August 2018). "Hermetia illucens as a new and promising species for use in entomoremediation". Science of the Total Environment. 633: 912–919. Bibcode:2018ScTEn.633..912B. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.03.252. PMID   29758914. S2CID   46890039.
  41. ↑ "Hypoallergenic (Insect) dog". TROVET. Retrieved 2019-10-08.
  42. ↑ Lei, X. J.; Kim, T. H.; Park, J. H.; Kim, I. H. (2019-07-01). "Evaluation of Supplementation of Defatted Black Soldier Fly (Hermetia illucens) Larvae Meal in Beagle Dogs". Annals of Animal Science. 19 (3): 767–777. doi: 10.2478/aoas-2019-0021 .
  43. ↑ Commission Regulation (EU) 2017/893 of 24 May 2017 amending Annexes I and IV to Regulation (EC) No 999/2001 of the European Parliament and of the Council and Annexes X, XIV and XV to Commission Regulation (EU) No 142/2011 as regards the provisions on processed animal protein
  44. ↑ Chia, Shaphan Yong; Tanga, Chrysantus Mbi; Khamis, Fathiya; Mohamed, Samira; Salifu, Daisy; Sevgan, Subramanian; Fiaboe, Komi; Niassy, Saliou; van Loon, Joop J. A.; Dicke, Marcel; Ekesi, Sunday (2018-11-01). "Threshold temperatures and thermal requirements of black soldier fly Hermetia illucens: Implications for mass production". PLOS ONE. 13 (11): e0206097. Bibcode:2018PLoSO..1306097C. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0206097 . PMC   6211680 . PMID   30383771.
  45. ↑ "Farm 432: The handy kitchen appliance that breeds fly larva for protein". New Atlas. 2013-07-30. Retrieved 2019-10-08.
  46. ↑ Andrews, Kate (2013-07-25). "Farm 432: Insect Breeding kitchen appliance by Katharina Unger". Dezeen. Retrieved 2019-10-08.
  47. ↑ Insects as an alternative source for the production of fats for cosmetics
  48. 1 2 EOS magazine, February 2020
  49. 1 2 Kempen Insect Valley's Circular Organics
  50. 1 2 Debode, Jane; De Tender, Caroline; Soltaninejad, Saman; Van Malderghem, Cinzia; Haegeman, Annelies; Van der Linden, Inge; Cottyn, Bart; Heyndrickx, Marc; Maes, Martine (2016-04-21). "Chitin Mixed in Potting Soil Alters Lettuce Growth, the Survival of Zoonotic Bacteria on the Leaves and Associated Rhizosphere Microbiology". Frontiers in Microbiology. 7: 565. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2016.00565 . ISSN   1664-302X. PMC   4838818 . PMID   27148242.
  51. 1 2 Sarathchandra, S. U.; Watson, R. N.; Cox, N. R.; di Menna, M. E.; Brown, J. A.; Burch, G.; Neville, F. J. (1996-05-01). "Effects of chitin amendment of soil on microorganisms, nematodes, and growth of white clover (Trifolium repens L.) and perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.)". Biology and Fertility of Soils. 22 (3): 221–226. doi:10.1007/BF00382516. ISSN   1432-0789. S2CID   32594901.
  52. ↑ Schmitt, Eric; de Vries, Wim (2020-10-01). "Potential benefits of using Hermetia illucens frass as a soil amendment on food production and for environmental impact reduction". Current Opinion in Green and Sustainable Chemistry. 25: 100335. doi:10.1016/j.cogsc.2020.03.005. ISSN   2452-2236. S2CID   216306110.
  53. 1 2 Gärttling, Daniel; Schulz, Hannes (2022-03-01). "Compilation of Black Soldier Fly Frass Analyses". Journal of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition. 22 (1): 937–943. doi: 10.1007/s42729-021-00703-w . ISSN   0718-9516. S2CID   244755798.
  54. ↑ Kebli, Hedi; Sinaj, Sokrat (March 1, 2017). "Agronomic potential of a natural fertiliser based on fly larvae frass".
  55. ↑ Beesigamukama, Dennis; Mochoge, Benson; Korir, Nicholas K.; Fiaboe, Komi K. M.; Nakimbugwe, Dorothy; Khamis, Fathiya M.; Subramanian, Sevgan; Dubois, Thomas; Musyoka, Martha W.; Ekesi, Sunday; Kelemu, Segenet; Tanga, Chrysantus M. (2020). "Exploring Black Soldier Fly Frass as Novel Fertilizer for Improved Growth, Yield, and Nitrogen Use Efficiency of Maize Under Field Conditions". Frontiers in Plant Science. 11: 574592. doi: 10.3389/fpls.2020.574592 . ISSN   1664-462X. PMC   7539147 . PMID   33072150.
  56. ↑ Fuhrmann, Adrian; Wilde, Benjamin; Conz, Rafaela Feola; Kantengwa, Speciose; Konlambigue, Matieyedou; Masengesho, Barthazar; Kintche, Kokou; Kassa, Kinfe; Musazura, William; Späth, Leonhard; Gold, Moritz; Mathys, Alexander; Six, Johan; Hartmann, Martin (2022). "Residues from black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) larvae rearing influence the plant-associated soil microbiome in the short term". Frontiers in Microbiology. 13: 994091. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.994091 . ISSN   1664-302X. PMC   9550165 . PMID   36225364.
  57. ↑ Chiam, Zhongyu; Lee, Jonathan Tian En; Tan, Jonathan Koon Ngee; Song, Shuang; Arora, Srishti; Tong, Yen Wah; Tan, Hugh Tiang Wah (2021-05-15). "Evaluating the potential of okara-derived black soldier fly larval frass as a soil amendment". Journal of Environmental Management. 286: 112163. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.112163. ISSN   0301-4797. PMID   33618320. S2CID   232017720.
  58. ↑ Song, Shuang; Ee, Alvin Wei Liang; Tan, Jonathan Koon Ngee; Cheong, Jia Chin; Chiam, Zhongyu; Arora, Srishti; Lam, Weng Ngai; Tan, Hugh Tiang Wah (2021-03-15). "Upcycling food waste using black soldier fly larvae: Effects of further composting on frass quality, fertilising effect and its global warming potential". Journal of Cleaner Production. 288: 125664. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.125664. ISSN   0959-6526. S2CID   233687355.
  59. ↑ IPIFF (the International Platform of Insects for Food and Feed) (November 29, 2021). "Fact sheet on insect frass" (PDF).
  60. ↑ Ewuim, Sylvanus C. (2013). "Entomoremediation – A novel in-situ bioremediation approach" (PDF). Animal Research International. 10 (1): 1681–1684.
  61. ↑ De Filippis, Francesca; Bonelli, Marco; Bruno, Daniele; Sequino, Giuseppina; Montali, Aurora; Reguzzoni, Marcella; Pasolli, Edoardo; Savy, Davide; Cangemi, Silvana; Cozzolino, Vincenza; Tettamanti, Gianluca; Ercolini, Danilo; Casartelli, Morena; Caccia, Silvia (2023-09-14). "Plastics shape the black soldier fly larvae gut microbiome and select for biodegrading functions". Microbiome. 11 (1): 205. doi: 10.1186/s40168-023-01649-0 . ISSN   2049-2618. PMC   10500907 . PMID   37705113.
  62. ↑ Mohan, Kannan; Sathishkumar, Palanivel; Rajan, Durairaj Karthick; Rajarajeswaran, Jayakumar; Ganesan, Abirami Ramu (February 2023). "Black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) larvae as potential feedstock for the biodiesel production: Recent advances and challenges". Science of the Total Environment. 859 (Pt 1): 160235. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.160235. PMID   36402342. S2CID   253661650.
  63. ↑ Li, Qing; Zheng, Longyu; Cai, Hao; Garza, E.; Yu, Ziniu; Zhou, Shengde (April 2011). "From organic waste to biodiesel: Black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens, makes it feasible". Fuel. 90 (4): 1545–1548. doi:10.1016/j.fuel.2010.11.016.
  64. ↑ "Breeding BSF in captivity / Re: not easy". Archived from the original on 2016-03-10. Retrieved 2011-12-07.
  65. ↑ Jetter, Michael (2010-04-02). "Zucht der schwarzen Soldatenfliege (Hermetia illucens)" [Breeding the black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens)]. Terrarienbilder.com (in German). Archived from the original on 2013-11-12. Retrieved 2019-10-08.
  66. ↑ Booth, Donald C.; Sheppard, Craig (1984-04-01). "Oviposition of the Black Soldier Fly, Hermetia illucens (Diptera: Stratiomyidae): Eggs, Masses, Timing, and Site Characteristics". Environmental Entomology. 13 (2): 421–423. doi:10.1093/ee/13.2.421. ISSN   0046-225X.
  67. ↑ Zhang; et al. (2010). "An Artificial Light Source Influences Mating and Oviposition of Black Soldier Flies, Hermetia illucens". Journal of Insect Science. 10 (202): 202. doi:10.1673/031.010.20201. PMC   3029228 . PMID   21268697. Under the quartz-iodine lamp... mating pairs were observed...approximately 39% less than observed when observing the effects of sunlight
  68. ↑ Schneider, J.C. (2020-04-08). "Effects of light intensity on mating of the black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens, Diptera: Stratiomyidae)". Journal of Insects as Food and Feed. 6 (2): 111–119. doi:10.3920/JIFF2019.0003. ISSN   2352-4588. S2CID   202856188.
  69. ↑ "Black Soldier Fly". Nutrition Technologies. Archived from the original on 2017-09-09. Retrieved 2017-09-09.
  70. ↑ Holmes (2010). "Role of Abiotic Factors on the Development and Life History of the Black Soldier Fly, Hermetia illucens (L.) (Diptera: Stratiomyidae)". university of windsor.
  71. ↑ Holmes (2012). "Substrate effects on pupation and adult emergence of Hermetia illucens (Diptera: Stratiomyidae)". Environmental Entomology. 42 (2). Entomological Society of America: 370–374. doi: 10.1603/EN12255 . PMID   23575028. S2CID   6375726.
  72. ↑ "Watchword: Animal Feed". May 5, 2015.
  73. ↑ "TABLE 05: Common Helminths of Poultry". The Merck Veterinary Manual / Poultry / Helminthiasis. Archived from the original on September 15, 2008. Retrieved April 20, 2008.
  74. ↑ Devic, Emilie; Maquart, Pierre-Olivier (2015-12-09). "Dirhinus giffardii (Hymenoptera: Chalcididae), parasitoid affecting Black Soldier Fly production systems in West Africa". Entomologia. 3 (1). ISSN   2281-9584.
  75. ↑ Delvare, GéRard; Copeland, Robert S.; Tanga, Chrysantus M. (2019-07-16). "Description of Eniacomorpha hermetiae Delvare sp. n. (Hymenoptera, Chalcidoidea, Chalcididae) a pupal parasitoid of Hermetia illucens (L.) (Diptera, Stratiomyidae), and a potential threat to mass production of the fly as a feed supplement for domestic animals". Zootaxa. 4638 (2): zootaxa.4638.2.4. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.4638.2.4. ISSN   1175-5334. PMID   31712476. S2CID   203875445.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.