Prepupa

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Prepupa of Harmonia axyridis (Coleoptera) Harmonia axyridis prepupa (2128081410).jpg
Prepupa of Harmonia axyridis (Coleoptera)
Apis mellifera (Hymenoptera) prepupa infested with Varroa mites CSIRO ScienceImage 7306 A European honey bee prepupa with varroa mites.jpg
Apis mellifera (Hymenoptera) prepupa infested with Varroa mites
Prepupa of Papilio xuthus (Lepidoptera) Prepupa of Papilio xuthus.jpg
Prepupa of Papilio xuthus (Lepidoptera)
Prepupa (left) and pupa (middle & right) of Chrysoperla carnea (Neuroptera) Chrysoperla-larva&pupa.jpg
Prepupa (left) and pupa (middle & right) of Chrysoperla carnea (Neuroptera)

The prepupa is a stage in the life cycle of certain insects, following the larva or nymph and preceding the pupa. It occurs in both holometabolous and hemimetabolous insects.

Contents

Examples

Coleoptera

Lady beetles have a prepupa stage. In Coleomegilla maculata , this lasts up to 24 hours. A larva enters the stage by attaching its rear abdominal segments to a leaf, and its body becomes stiff and curved. It does not move unless provoked (e.g. by a predator attacking it), in which case it moves to escape the threat. [1]

In the stag beetle Cyclommatus metallifer , the prepupa involves four distinct stages. The first lasts 2 days and involves a beetle larva constructing its pupal cell. The second lasts 3-4 days and involves the prepupa purging the contents of its gut, also changing shape in the process. The third stage, in which the prepupa undergoes proliferation of adult tissues, lasts 3-5 days. The fourth and final stage is the shortest at just a few hours, in which the prepupa finishes purging its gut contents and completing its transformation into a pupa. [2]

Diptera

In black soldier fly ( Hermetia illucens ), the prepupa differs from the larva by being darker and having reduced mouthparts. It moves around with a sinusoidal movement of the body, whereas the larva relies more heavily on pinning the substrate with its head. It usually responds to disturbance by ceasing movement (tonic immobility), a response rarely done by larvae. Prepupae do not feed and migrate towards shelters where they then pupate. [3]

Flies of superfamily Hippoboscoidea are unusual in that a larva develops inside its mother and is born in the prepupa stage, whereupon it immediately progresses to the pupa stage. [4]

Hemiptera

In males of most scale insects and mealybugs (Coccoidea), there are two nymphal instars, followed by a prepupal instar and a pupal instar, and finally the adult stage. The prepupa and pupa are usually protected by some kind of covering secreted by the previous stage. The prepupa of some of the primitive archaeococcoids is similar to the nymph aside from lacking functional mouthparts and sometimes having reduced legs. Other archaeococcoids have prepupae with developing wing pads and legs. In the more derived neococcoids, there are signs of legs and sometimes developing wing pads. Some mealybugs have prepupae (and pupae) capable of movement. [5]

Hymenoptera

Various Hymenoptera overwinter in the prepupa stage. These typically become prepupa in mid- or late summer, then go into diapause for autumn and winter, resuming development in spring or early summer. [6]

In honeybees, a larva about to become a prepupa first orients its anterior end towards the cap of its cell. It spins a cocoon around itself and progresses to the prepupa stage. The honeybee prepupa is straightened and motionless in its cell, during which its cuticle progressively loosens. Finally, it undergoes ecdysis to become a pupa. [7]

Sawfly prepupae are often entirely white or bone-coloured. The mandibles are shaped differently to larval mandibles. As with prepupae of other groups, they stop feeding and become sluggish. [8]

Lepidoptera

The prepupa stage is rare in Lepidoptera, with most species passing directly from the feeding larva stage to the pupa stage. An exception to this is Calindoea trifascialis . [9] Other exceptions include species of Papilio . [10] [11]

Megaloptera

Alderflies and dobsonflies (Megaloptera) are aquatic as larvae, but their prepupae leave the water to find pupation sites. A larva may travel 10 m or more away from water. It finds a rock, log or human debris and digs a shallow chamber underneath. [12]

Thysanoptera

Thrips have two feeding instars (called larvae or nymphs), followed by the nonfeeding prepupa and pupa. [13] [14] The prepupa and pupa often occur in soil or leaf litter, or in plant crevices or galls. [13] [14]

Importance to humans

Black soldier flies have various uses, being able to consume organic wastes and then be used as food and feed, or in production of bioplastics. Their prepupae can be "self-harvested" by exploiting their migration instinct to make them go into a collection area. [3]

Prepupae, along with pupae, of eri silkworm ( Samia ricini ) are consumed as food in India. [15]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pupa</span> Life stage of some insects undergoing transformation

A pupa is the life stage of some insects undergoing transformation between immature and mature stages. Insects that go through a pupal stage are holometabolous: they go through four distinct stages in their life cycle, the stages thereof being egg, larva, pupa, and imago. The processes of entering and completing the pupal stage are controlled by the insect's hormones, especially juvenile hormone, prothoracicotropic hormone, and ecdysone. The act of becoming a pupa is called pupation, and the act of emerging from the pupal case is called eclosion or emergence.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Megaloptera</span> Order of insects

Megaloptera is an order of insects. It contains the alderflies, dobsonflies and fishflies, and there are about 300 known species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Huhu beetle</span> Species of insect

The huhu beetle is a longhorn beetle endemic to New Zealand. It is the heaviest beetle found in New Zealand.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Caddisfly</span> Order of caddisflies

The caddisflies, or order Trichoptera, are a group of insects with aquatic larvae and terrestrial adults. There are approximately 14,500 described species, most of which can be divided into the suborders Integripalpia and Annulipalpia on the basis of the adult mouthparts. Integripalpian larvae construct a portable casing to protect themselves as they move around looking for food, while annulipalpian larvae make themselves a fixed retreat in which they remain, waiting for food to come to them. The affinities of the small third suborder Spicipalpia are unclear, and molecular analysis suggests it may not be monophyletic. Also called sedge-flies or rail-flies, the adults are small moth-like insects with two pairs of hairy membranous wings. They are closely related to the Lepidoptera which have scales on their wings; the two orders together form the superorder Amphiesmenoptera.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dobsonfly</span> Subfamily of insects

Dobsonflies are a subfamily of insects, Corydalinae, part of the Megalopteran family Corydalidae. The larvae are aquatic, living in streams, and the adults are often found along streams as well. The nine genera of dobsonflies are distributed in the Americas, Asia, and South Africa.

Holometabolism, also called complete metamorphosis, is a form of insect development which includes four life stages: egg, larva, pupa, and imago. Holometabolism is a synapomorphic trait of all insects in the superorder Holometabola. Immature stages of holometabolous insects are very different from the mature stage. In some species the holometabolous life cycle prevents larvae from competing with adults because they inhabit different ecological niches. The morphology and behavior of each stage are adapted for different activities. For example, larval traits maximize feeding, growth, and development, while adult traits enable dispersal, mating, and egg laying. Some species of holometabolous insects protect and feed their offspring. Other insect developmental strategies include ametabolism and hemimetabolism.

<i>Corydalus cornutus</i> Species of insect

The eastern dobsonfly, Corydalus cornutus, is a large insect in the Corydalidae family. It is found in eastern North America in regions with fast-flowing streams where its aquatic larvae develop. These are known as hellgrammites and are among the top invertebrate predators in the streams in which they live. They are used by anglers as bait.

<i>Hermetia illucens</i> Common and widespread fly of the family Stratiomyidae

Hermetia illucens, the black soldier fly, is a common and widespread fly of the family Stratiomyidae. Since the late 20th century, H. illucens has increasingly been gaining attention because of its usefulness for recycling organic waste and generating animal feed.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mandible (insect mouthpart)</span>

Insect mandibles are a pair of appendages near the insect's mouth, and the most anterior of the three pairs of oral appendages. Their function is typically to grasp, crush, or cut the insect's food, or to defend against predators or rivals. Insect mandibles, which appear to be evolutionarily derived from legs, move in the horizontal plane unlike those of vertebrates, which appear to be derived from gill arches and move vertically.

<i>Polygonia interrogationis</i> Species of butterfly

Polygonia interrogationis, commonly called the question mark butterfly, is a North American nymphalid butterfly. It lives in wooded areas, city parks, generally in areas with a combination of trees and open space. The color and textured appearance of the underside of its wings combine to provide camouflage that resembles a dead leaf. The adult butterfly has a wingspan of 4.5–7.6 cm (1.8–3.0 in). Its flight period is from May to September. "The silver mark on the underside of the hindwing is broken into two parts, a curved line and a dot, creating a ?-shaped mark that gives the species its common name."

<i>Papilio demodocus</i> Species of butterfly

Papilio demodocus, the citrus swallowtail or Christmas butterfly, is a swallowtail butterfly which commonly occurs over the entirety of sub-Saharan Africa, including Madagascar, besides the southern Arabian Peninsula. The caterpillars feed on various native plants of especially the family Rutaceae, but have also taken to the leaves of cultivated citrus trees.

<i>Papilio anactus</i> Species of butterfly

Papilio anactus, the dainty swallowtail, dingy swallowtail or small citrus butterfly is a medium-sized butterfly from the family Papilionidae, that is endemic to Australia.

Calliphora latifrons is a species of blue bottle fly.

<i>Lebia grandis</i> Species of beetle

Lebia grandis is a ground beetle in the family Carabidae found in North America. It is a specialist predator on the eggs and larvae of Colorado potato beetles, and its larvae are obligate parasitoids of Colorado potato beetle pupae.

<i>Cyclommatus</i> Genus of beetles

Cyclommatus is a genus of the family Lucanidae, also known as the stag beetle. The majority of the species from the genus Cyclommatus are located in Southeast Asia, though some species are found in China and Taiwan as well. The genus Cyclommatus also consists of three subgenera: Cyclommatus, Cyclommatinus and Cyclommatellus. Each subgenera contains 80, 24 and 3 species respectively. In total, the genus Cyclommatus consists of a total of 134 species, though more are still being discovered to this day.

<i>Papilio rumiko</i> Species of butterfly

Papilio rumiko or western giant swallowtail is a species of swallowtail butterfly. It is found from the south-western United States, through Mexico, El Salvador, Honduras, Costa Rica to Panama. The northernmost record is north-eastern Colorado.

<i>Archichauliodes diversus</i> Species of insect

Archichauliodes diversus is an insect in the subfamily Chauliodinae - the fishflies, though it is often referred to as the New Zealand dobsonfly, despite not being a true dobsonfly. In its larval form it is commonly known by the name toe-biter, and its Māori name is puene. The species is native to New Zealand. Although there are many other species of fishfly in other parts of the world, Archichauliodes diversus is the only species of fishfly in New Zealand.

<i>Heliothrips haemorrhoidalis</i> Species of thrip

Heliothrips haemorrhoidalis is a species of thrips in the family Thripidae. It is most commonly known as the greenhouse thrips, the glasshouse thrip or black tea thrips. This species of thrips was first described in 1833 by Bouché in Berlin, Germany. H. haemorrhoidalis also has many synonyms depending on where they were described from such as: H. adonidum Haliday, H. semiaureus Girault, H. abdominalis Reuter, H. angustior Priesner, H. ceylonicus Schultz, Dinurothrips rufiventris Girault. In New Zealand, H. haemorrhoidalis is one of the four species belonging to the subfamily Panchaetothripinae.

Afidenta misera, is a species of lady beetle widespread in the Oriental region.

<i>Planococcus ficus</i> Species of mealybug

Planococcus ficus, commonly known as the vine mealybug, is a species of mealybug, belonging to the family Pseudococcidae, native to tropical and subtropical regions. The vine mealybug is found in Europe, Northern Africa, Southern Africa, the Americas, and the Middle East. The vine mealybug is invasive to weedy plants in many different regions of the world.

References

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  2. Gotoh, Hiroki; Miyakawa, Hitoshi; Ishikawa, Asano; Ishikawa, Yuki; Sugime, Yasuhiro; Emlen, Douglas J.; Lavine, Laura C.; Miura, Toru (2014-01-16). Kopp, Artyom (ed.). "Developmental Link between Sex and Nutrition; doublesex Regulates Sex-Specific Mandible Growth via Juvenile Hormone Signaling in Stag Beetles". PLOS Genetics. 10 (1): e1004098. doi: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1004098 . ISSN   1553-7404. PMC   3894178 . PMID   24453990.
  3. 1 2 Giannetti, Daniele; Schifani, Enrico; Reggiani, Roberto; Mazzoni, Emanuele; Reguzzi, Maria Cristina; Castracani, Cristina; Spotti, Fiorenza A.; Giardina, Beatrice; Mori, Alessandra; Grasso, Donato A. (2022-01-25). "Do It by Yourself: Larval Locomotion in the Black Soldier Fly Hermetia illucens, with a Novel "Self-Harvesting" Method to Separate Prepupae". Insects. 13 (2): 127. doi: 10.3390/insects13020127 . ISSN   2075-4450. PMC   8879302 . PMID   35206701.
  4. Morse, Solon F.; Bush, Sarah E.; Patterson, Bruce D.; Dick, Carl W.; Gruwell, Matthew E.; Dittmar, Katharina (2013). "Evolution, Multiple Acquisition, and Localization of Endosymbionts in Bat Flies (Diptera: Hippoboscoidea: Streblidae and Nycteribiidae)". Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 79 (9): 2952–2961. Bibcode:2013ApEnM..79.2952M. doi:10.1128/AEM.03814-12. ISSN   0099-2240. PMC   3623134 . PMID   23435889.
  5. Williams, D.J.; Hodgson, Chris (2013-12-17). "Are some prepupae and pupae of male mealybugs and root mealybugs (Hemiptera, Coccoidea, Pseudococcidae and Rhizoecidae) mobile?". ZooKeys (364): 19–28. Bibcode:2013ZooK..364...19W. doi: 10.3897/zookeys.364.6459 . ISSN   1313-2970. PMC   3890662 . PMID   24453543.
  6. Kemp, W. P.; Bosch, J.; Dennis, Brian (2004-01-01). "Oxygen Consumption During the Life Cycles of the Prepupa-Wintering Bee Megachile rotundata and the Adult-Wintering Bee Osmia lignaria (Hymenoptera: Megachilidae)". Annals of the Entomological Society of America. 97 (1): 161–170. doi: 10.1603/0013-8746(2004)097[0161:OCDTLC]2.0.CO;2 .
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  9. Hawes, Timothy C. (2021-09-15). "The Prepupa of Calindoea trifascialis (Lepidoptera, Thyrididae)". The Journal of the Lepidopterists' Society. 75 (3). doi:10.18473/lepi.75i3.a5. ISSN   0024-0966. S2CID   237517873.
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  15. Gangopadhyay, Debnirmalya; Ray, Mrinal; Sinha, Sujata (2022). "Comparison of amino acid profiles and vitamin contents of male and female prepupae and pupae of eri silkworm, Samia ricini". Journal of Food Composition and Analysis. 113: 104723. doi:10.1016/j.jfca.2022.104723. S2CID   250272634.