Meat industry

An industrial meat packing plant in Hungary, 2013

The meat industry are the people and companies engaged in modern industrialized livestock agriculture for the production, packing, preservation and marketing of meat (in contrast to dairy products, wool, etc.). In economics, the meat industry is a fusion of primary (agriculture) and secondary (industry) activity and hard to characterize strictly in terms of either one alone. The greater part of the meat industry is the meat packing industry – the segment that handles the slaughtering, processing, packaging, and distribution of animals such as poultry, cattle, pigs, sheep and other livestock.

A great portion of the ever-growing ^[1] meat branch in the food industry involves intensive animal farming in which livestock are kept almost entirely indoors ^[2] or in restricted outdoor settings like pens. Many aspects of the raising of animals for meat have become industrialized, even many practices more associated with smaller family farms, e.g. gourmet foods such as foie gras. ^{[3] [4]} This heavy industrialization leads to an outsized environmental impact, responsible for significant greenhouse gas emissions, land use change and degradation, and water, air and soil pollution. ^[5]

The production of livestock is a heavily vertically integrated industry where the majority of supply chain stages are integrated and owned by one company. ^[6] Each stage of the process of rearing animals to slaughter, is often concentrated in very few companies -- with some companies dominating multiple stages of the industry; for example in agrochemicals used in animal production 66% of global revenue are concentrated in four firms, in animal pharmaceuticals 58%. ^[7] For example, Brazil's JBS S.A. have secured market dominance in multiple sectors in the USA and Brazil and is the world's largest animal slaughter company. ^[5] This large economic influence, both within countries and over international trade, has created significant political influence from the industry. ^[5] A 2025 review of scholarship found that the animal agriculture industry has played an outsized role in creating obstruction of climate change, by actively supporting disinformation campaigns, and preventing policy to address climate change. ^[5]

Global production of meat products

Main article: List of countries by meat production

Global production of meat in 2023 was 362.9 million tons of meat, most of which was produced in industrial supply chains. ^[8] Meat production is globally dominated by a handful of super producing net exporting countries of meat and meat products, such as China (97.5 million tons in 2023), the United States (47.5 million tons in 2023), and Brazil (31.6 million tons in 2023) which produce, together over 176 million tons or nearly half of global production. ^[8] A full list of producers can be found at List of countries by meat production.

Companies

The top ten of the international meat industry

Among the largest meat producers worldwide are:

• JBS S.A. (Brazil)
• Tyson Foods (United States)
• Cargill (United States)
• Marfrig (Brazil)
• WH Group (Hong Kong)
• BRF S.A. (Brazil)
• Vion NV (Netherlands)
• Minerva Foods (Brazil)
• Danish Crown (Denmark)

See also: Meat Atlas

Meat production is dominated by a few countries, with the United States, China and Brazil producing large portions of global meat (seen in 2022).

Forecasts

A graph showing the projected grow of meat industries for 2025-2034 from FAO/OECD

A Food and Agriculture Organization and OECD project for meat production across the world, project significant increases in animals slaughter from 2025 to 2034, as global demand for meat increases especially in lower middle income and lower income countries. ^[9]

Sectors involved

When describing the meat industry, typically the focus is on the steps between breeding and rearing animals, typically in industrial-type operations, and slaughter, through to the processing and distribution of the meat. Like other parts of the food system -- industrial scale companies tend to combine multiple of these items.

Most companies involved in the meat industry, also own businesses, factories or brands focused on using animal by-products, such as slaughterhouse waste used in pet food, or creating inputs for the sector, such as cattle feed.

Animal breeding

This section is an excerpt from Animal breeding.[ edit ]

Animal breeding is a branch of animal science that addresses the evaluation (using best linear unbiased prediction and other methods) of the genetic value (estimated breeding value, EBV) of livestock. Selecting for breeding animals with superior EBV in growth rate, egg, meat, milk, or wool production, or with other desirable traits has revolutionized livestock production throughout the entire world. The scientific theory of animal breeding incorporates population genetics, quantitative genetics, statistics, and recently molecular genetics and is based on the pioneering work of Sewall Wright, Jay Lush, and Charles Henderson.

Intensive animal production

This section is an excerpt from Intensive animal farming.[ edit ]

Intensive animal farming, industrial livestock production, and macro-farms, ^[10] also known as factory farming, ^[11] is a type of intensive agriculture used by the meat and dairy industry to maximize animal production while minimizing costs. ^[12] To achieve this, agribusinesses keep livestock such as cattle, poultry, and fish at high stocking densities, at large scale, and using modern machinery, biotechnology, and pharmaceutics. ^{[13] [14]} The main products are meat, milk and eggs for human consumption. ^[15]

While intensive animal farming can produce large amounts of animal products at a low cost with reduced human labor, ^[16] it is controversial as it raises several ethical concerns, ^[17] including animal welfare issues (confinement, mutilations, stress-induced aggression, breeding complications), ^{[18] [19]} harm to the environment and wildlife (greenhouse gases, deforestation, eutrophication), ^[20] increased use of cropland to produce animal feed, ^{[21] [22]} public health risks (zoonotic diseases, pandemic risks, antibiotic resistance), ^[28] and worker exploitation, particularly of undocumented workers. ^[29] The animal agriculture industry has been accused of actively supporting disinformation campaigns and preventing policies to address climate change. ^[30]

Industrial livestock production is important in most of the large meat-producing regions, such as Brazil, the United States, China, Argentina, Australia, New Zealand and the European Union, with expansion of megafarms or concentrated animal feeding operations. ^{[31] [32]}

Meat packing

This section is an excerpt from Meat-packing industry.[ edit ]

The William Davies Company facilities in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, circa 1920. This facility was then the third largest hog-packing plant in North America.

The meat-packing industry (also spelled meatpacking industry or meat packing industry) handles the slaughtering, processing, packaging, and distribution of meat from animals such as cattle, pigs, sheep and other livestock. Poultry is generally not included. This greater part of the entire meat industry is primarily focused on producing meat for human consumption, but it also yields a variety of by-products including hides, dried blood, protein meals such as meat & bone meal, and, through the process of rendering, fats (such as tallow).

In the United States and some other countries, the facility where the meat packing is done is called a slaughterhouse , packinghouse or a meat-packing plant; in New Zealand, where most of the products are exported, it is called a freezing works. ^[33] An abattoir is a place where animals are slaughtered for food.

Pork packing in Cincinnati, 1873

The meat-packing industry grew with the construction of railroads and methods of refrigeration for meat preservation. Railroads made possible the transport of stock to central points for processing, and the transport of products.

Processed meat products

This section is an excerpt from Processed meat.[ edit ]

Various types of processed meat for sale at a supermarket

Processed meat is considered to be any meat that has been modified in order to either improve its taste or to extend its shelf life. Methods of meat processing include salting, curing, fermentation, smoking, and the addition of chemical preservatives. ^[34] Processed meat is frequently made from pork or beef, but also poultry and others. It can contain meat by-products such as blood. ^[35] Processed meat products include bacon, ham, sausages, salami, corned beef, jerky, hot dogs, lunch meat, canned meat, chicken nuggets, and meat-based sauces. ^{[36] [37] [38]} Meat processing includes all the processes that change fresh meat, with the exception of simple mechanical processes such as cutting, grinding or mixing. ^[39]

Meat processing began as soon as people realized that cooking and salting helps to preserve fresh meat. It is not known when this took place; however, the process of salting and sun-drying was recorded in Ancient Egypt, while using ice and snow is credited to early Romans, and canning was developed by Nicolas Appert who in 1810 received a prize for his invention from the French government. ^[39] Medical health organizations advise people to limit processed meat consumption as it increases risk of some forms of cancer, ^{[40] [41] [42] [43]} cardiovascular disease, and Alzheimer's disease.

Criticism

Further information: Ethics of eating meat, Environmental impact of meat production, and Veganism

Criticized aspects and effects of industrial meat production include:

• Hormone treatment such as steroids and the effect of consuming meat from animals raised with these on human consumers (see also Beef hormone controversy) ^[44]
• Spread of animal diseases, e.g. mad-cow disease (BSE), avian flu, swine influenza (H1N1), avian influenza (H5N1), foot-and-mouth disease, ^[1] including to human consumers
• The commonness of cruelty to animals in the meat industry
• Certain animal rights advocates and groups believe that the production of meat is unethical ^[45] and the industry should be abolished ^[46]
• Contribution of the overconsumption of meat products to obesity
  See also: Red_meat § Human_health, and Beef § Health_concerns
• Spread of human disease associated with animal waste, e.g. through E. coli
  • Cost of state services associated with the above, including meat inspection and health care
• Spread of human disease associated with workers in meat and poultry processing facilities ^[47]

Many observers^{[ who? ]} suggest that the expense of dealing with the above is grossly underestimated by present economic metrics and that true cost accounting would drastically raise the price ^[48] of industrial meat. ^{[49] [50] [51] [52]}

Animal welfare

This section is an excerpt from Animal welfare § Farmed animals.[ edit ]

The welfare of egg laying hens in battery cages (top) can be compared with the welfare of free range hens (middle and bottom) which are given access to the outdoors. However, animal welfare groups argue that the vast majority of free-range hens are still intensively confined (bottom) and are rarely able to go outdoors. ^{[53] [54] [55]}

A major concern for the welfare of farmed animals is factory farming in which large numbers of animals are reared in confinement at high stocking densities. Issues include the limited opportunities for natural behaviors, for example, in battery cages, veal and gestation crates, instead producing abnormal behaviors such as tail-biting, cannibalism, and feather pecking, and routine invasive procedures such as beak trimming, castration, and ear notching.More extensive methods of farming, e.g. free range, can also raise welfare concerns such as the mulesing of sheep and predation of stock by wild animals. Biosecurity is also a risk with free range farming, as it allows for more contact between livestock and wild animal populations, which may carry zoonoses. ^[56]

Farmed animals are artificially selected for production parameters which sometimes impinge on the animals' welfare. For example, broiler chickens are bred to be very large to produce the greatest quantity of meat per animal. Broilers bred for fast growth have a high incidence of leg deformities because the large breast muscles cause distortions of the developing legs and pelvis, and the birds cannot support their increased body weight. As a consequence, they frequently become lame or suffer from broken legs. The increased body weight also puts a strain on their hearts and lungs, and ascites often develop. In the UK alone, up to 20 million broilers each year die from the stress of catching and transporting before reaching the slaughterhouse.This stress can be measured by the high level of heart rate and its cortisol levels, but it can also be seen in their behavior or physical changes. In situations where they are threatened, alone, or can't interact with others, these results are common. ^[57] Animal welfare violations have been observed more in intensively bred chicken, pig and cattle species, respectively, and studies and laws have been enacted in this regard. However, animal welfare in semi-intensive species such as sheep and goats is nowadays being scrutinised and gaining importance. ^[58]

Another concern about the welfare of farmed animals is the method of slaughter, especially ritual slaughter. While the killing of animals need not necessarily involve suffering, the general public considers that killing an animal reduces its welfare. ^[59] This leads to further concerns about premature slaughtering such as chick culling by the laying hen industry, in which males are slaughtered immediately after hatching because they are superfluous; this policy occurs in other farmed animal industries such as the production of goat and cattle milk, raising the same concerns.

A 2023 report by the Animal Welfare Institute found that animal welfare claims by companies selling meat and poultry products lack adequate substantiation in roughly 85% of analyzed cases. ^{[60] [61]}

Environmental impacts

Aftermath of deforestation processes due to cattle ranching purposes in the region of Honduras

This section is an excerpt from Environmental impacts of animal agriculture.[ edit ]

The environmental impacts of animal agriculture vary because of the wide variety of agricultural practices employed around the world. Despite this, all agricultural practices have been found to have a variety of effects on the environment to some extent. Animal agriculture, in particular meat production, can cause pollution, greenhouse gas emissions, biodiversity loss, disease, and significant consumption of land, food, and water. Meat is obtained through a variety of methods, including organic farming, free-range farming, intensive livestock production, and subsistence agriculture. The livestock sector also includes wool, egg and dairy production, the livestock used for tillage, and fish farming.

Animal agriculture is a significant contributor to greenhouse gas emissions. Cows, sheep, and other ruminants digest their food by enteric fermentation, and their burps are the main source of methane emissions from land use, land-use change, and forestry. Together with methane and nitrous oxide from manure, this makes livestock the main source of greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture. ^{[62] [63] [64] [65]} A significant reduction in meat consumption is essential to mitigate climate change, especially as the human population increases by a projected 2.3 billion by the middle of the century. ^{[66] [67]}

Effects on livestock workers

See also: Slaughterhouse § Worker exploitation concerns

American slaughterhouse workers are three times more likely to suffer serious injury than the average American worker. ^[68] NPR reports that pig and cattle slaughterhouse workers are nearly seven times more likely to suffer repetitive strain injuries than average. ^[69] The Guardian reports that, on average, there are two amputations a week involving slaughterhouse workers in the United States. ^[70] On average, one employee of Tyson Foods, the largest meat producer in America, is injured and amputates a finger or limb per month. ^[71] The Bureau of Investigative Journalism reported that over a period of six years, in the UK 78 slaughter workers lost fingers, parts of fingers or limbs, more than 800 workers had serious injuries, and at least 4,500 had to take more than three days off after accidents. ^[72] In a 2018 study in the Italian Journal of Food Safety, slaughterhouse workers are instructed to wear ear protectors to protect their hearing from the constant screams of animals being killed. ^[73] A 2004 study in the Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine found that "excess risks were observed for mortality from all causes, all cancers, and lung cancer" in workers employed in the New Zealand meat processing industry. ^[74]

The worst thing, worse than the physical danger, is the emotional toll. If you work in the stick pit [where hogs are killed] for any period of time—that let's [sic] you kill things but doesn't let you care. You may look a hog in the eye that's walking around in the blood pit with you and think, 'God, that really isn't a bad looking animal.' You may want to pet it. Pigs down on the kill floor have come up to nuzzle me like a puppy. Two minutes later I had to kill them – beat them to death with a pipe. I can't care.

— Gail A. Eisnitz, ^[75]

The act of slaughtering animals, or of raising or transporting animals for slaughter, may engender psychological stress or trauma in the people involved. ^{[76] [77] [69] [78] [79] [80] [81] [82] [83] [84] [85]} A 2016 study in Organization indicates, "Regression analyses of data from 10,605 Danish workers across 44 occupations suggest that slaughterhouse workers consistently experience lower physical and psychological well-being along with increased incidences of negative coping behavior." ^[86] A 2009 study by criminologist Amy Fitzgerald indicates, "slaughterhouse employment increases total arrest rates, arrests for violent crimes, arrests for rape, and arrests for other sex offenses in comparison with other industries." ^[86] As authors from the PTSD Journal explain, "These employees are hired to kill animals, such as pigs and cows, that are largely gentle creatures. Carrying out this action requires workers to disconnect from what they are doing and from the creature standing before them. This emotional dissonance can lead to consequences such as domestic violence, social withdrawal, anxiety, drug and alcohol abuse, and PTSD." ^[87]

Slaughterhouses in the United States commonly illegally employ and exploit underage workers and illegal immigrants. ^{[88] [89]} In 2010, Human Rights Watch described slaughterhouse line work in the United States as a human rights crime. ^[90] In a report by Oxfam America, slaughterhouse workers were observed not being allowed breaks, were often required to wear diapers, and were paid below minimum wage. ^[91]

Industry for alternative meats

Because of the outsized environmental and social impact of the meat industry, multiple industrial and social movements have proposed alternatives to a meat industry. Notable amongst these are cultured meat and meat alternatives, both industrially manufactured substitutes for meat for people seeking the experience of meat in food, without the associated environmental or ethical impacts. However, neither industry has taken a significant portion of the market. After much hype during the late 2010s and early 2020s, many of the larger companies, such as Beyond Meat, persuing meat altneratives saw a significant drop in value. ^[92]

Alternative meat industry

Main article: Meat analogue

This section is an excerpt from Meat alternative.[ edit ]

A tempeh burger

Chinese style tofu from Buddhist cuisine is prepared as an alternative to meat.

Two slices of vegetarian bacon

A meat alternative or meat substitute (also called plant-based meat, mock meat, or alternative protein), ^[93] is a food product made from vegetarian or vegan ingredients, eaten as a replacement for meat. Meat alternatives typically aim to replicate qualities of whatever type of meat they replace, such as mouthfeel, flavor, and appearance. ^{[94] [95] [96] [97] [98] [99]} Plant- and fungus-based substitutes are frequently made with soy (e.g. tofu, tempeh, and textured vegetable protein), but may also be made from wheat gluten as in seitan, pea protein as in the Beyond Burger, or mycoprotein as in Quorn. ^[100] Alternative protein foods can also be made by precision fermentation, where single cell organisms such as yeast produce specific proteins using a carbon source; or can be grown by culturing animal cells outside an animal, based on tissue engineering techniques. ^[101] The ingredients of meat alternative include 50–80% water, 10–25% textured vegetable proteins, 4–20% non-textured proteins, 0–15% fat and oil, 3-10% flavors/spices, 1–5% binding agents and 0–0.5% coloring agents. ^[102]  

Meatless tissue engineering involves the cultivation of stem cells on natural or synthetic scaffolds to create meat-like products. ^[103] Scaffolds can be made from various materials, including plant-derived biomaterials, synthetic polymers, animal-based proteins, and self-assembling polypeptides. ^[104] It is these 3D scaffold-based methods provide a specialized structural environment for cellular growth. ^{[105] [106]} Alternatively, scaffold-free methods promote cell aggregation, allowing cells to self-organize into tissue-like structures. ^[107]

Meat alternatives are typically consumed as a source of dietary protein by vegetarians, vegans, and people following religious and cultural dietary laws. However, global demand for sustainable diets has also increased their popularity among non-vegetarians and flexitarians seeking to reduce the environmental impact of animal agriculture.

Meat substitution has a long history. Tofu was invented in China as early as 200 BCE, ^[108] and in the Middle Ages, chopped nuts and grapes were used as a substitute for mincemeat during Lent. ^[109] Since the 2010s, startup companies such as Impossible Foods and Beyond Meat have popularized pre-made plant-based substitutes for ground beef, burger patties, and chicken nuggets as commercial products.

Cultured meat industry

This section is an excerpt from Cultured meat.[ edit ]

The first cell-cultured hamburger, cooked at a news conference in London, 2013

Cultured chicken in pasta salad, served at a restaurant in Singapore, 2023

Cultured meat, also known as cultivated meat among other names, is a form of cellular agriculture wherein meat is produced by culturing animal cells in vitro ; ^{[110] [111] [112] [113] [114]} thus growing animal flesh, molecularly identical to that of conventional meat, outside of a living animal. Cultured meat is produced using tissue engineering techniques pioneered in regenerative medicine. ^[115] It has been noted for potential in lessening the impact of meat production on the environment ^[112] and addressing issues around animal welfare, food security and human health. ^{[116] [117] [118] [119] [120] [121] [122]}

Mark Post of the University of Maastricht presents The Meat Revolution, a lecture about cultured meat, 2015

Isha Datar of New Harvest on how a "post-animal bio-economy" can be brought about through cultured meat, eggs, and milk, 2017

Jason Matheny popularized the concept in the early 2000s after he co-authored a paper ^[123] on cultured meat production and created New Harvest, the world's first non-profit organization dedicated to in vitro meat research. ^[124] In 2013, Mark Post created a hamburger patty made from tissue grown outside of an animal; other cultured meat prototypes have gained media attention since. In 2020, SuperMeat opened a farm-to-fork restaurant in Tel Aviv called The Chicken, serving cultured chicken burgers in exchange for reviews to test consumer reaction rather than money; ^{[125] [126]} while the "world's first commercial sale of cell-cultured meat" occurred in December 2020 at Singapore restaurant 1880, where cultured chicken manufactured by United States firm Eat Just was sold. ^{[127] [128]}

Most efforts focus on common meats such as pork, beef, and chicken; species which constitute the bulk of conventional meat consumption in developed countries. ^[129] Some companies have pursued various species of fish and other seafood, ^[130] such as Avant Meats who brought cultured grouper to market in 2021. ^[131] Other companies such as Orbillion Bio have focused on high-end or unusual meats including elk, lamb, bison, and Wagyu beef. ^[132]

The production process of cultured meat is constantly evolving, driven by companies and research institutions. ^[133] The applications for cultured meat havе led to ethical, ^[134] health, environmental, cultural, and economic discussions. ^[135] Data published by The Good Food Institute found that in 2021 through 2023, cultured meat and seafood companies attracted over $2.5 billion in investment worldwide. ^[136] However, cultured meat is not yet widely available.

See also

• Agricultural engineering
• Agricultural robot
• Dairy industry in the United Kingdom
• Dairy industry in the United States
• Dairy industry
• Golden Triangle of Meat-packing
• Grinder-mixer
• ICT in agriculture
• Leather
• List of largest meat companies in Germany
• Meat Industry Workers Federation
• Meat market
• North American Meat Institute (NAMI)
• Pink slime, white slime
• Poultry industry
• Red meat
• Rendering (animal products)
• Slaughterhouse
• World Beef Report

References

1. "Global Meat Production and Consumption Continue to Rise". Worldwatch Institute. Archived from the original on 24 January 2013. Retrieved 30 June 2015.
2. Paul Ebner. "Modern Livestock Facilities". Purdue University. Archived from the original on 22 May 2018. Retrieved 1 March 2016.
3. "Foie Gras: Cruelty to Ducks and Geese | Ducks and Geese Used for Food | Factory Farming: Misery for Animals | The Issues". PETA. 21 June 2010. Retrieved 16 January 2017.
4. "An Animal Equality investigation". Foie Gras farms. Retrieved 16 January 2017.
5. Lauber, Kathrin; Morris, Viveca; Jacquet, Jennifer; Li, Peter; Möller, Ina; Secchi, Silvia; Wijeratna, Alex; Bona, Melina De (14 October 2025), Roberts, J. Timmons; Milani, Carlos R. S.; Jacquet, Jennifer; Downie, Christian (eds.), "The Animal Agriculture Industry's Role in Obstructing Climate Action", Climate Obstruction (1 ed.), Oxford University PressNew York, pp. 98–138, doi:10.1093/oso/9780197787144.003.0004, ISBN   978-0-19-778714-4 , retrieved 29 October 2025
6. "Organic Meat Market Size, Share, Analysis, Trends, Forecast". Citius Research. Retrieved 25 June 2025.
7. "Companies: dominating the market from farm to display case | Heinrich Böll Stiftung | Brussels office - European Union". eu.boell.org. Retrieved 29 October 2025.
8. Hannah Ritchie, Pablo Rosado, and Max Roser (2019) - “Meat and Dairy Production” Published online at OurWorldinData.org. Retrieved from: 'https://ourworldindata.org/meat-production' [Online Resource]
9. OECD; Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (15 July 2025). OECD-FAO Agricultural Outlook 2025-2034. OECD-FAO Agricultural Outlook. OECD Publishing. doi:10.1787/601276cd-en. ISBN   978-92-64-40615-5.
10. "The limits in sight for Spanish macro farms". In Spain News. 16 December 2021. Retrieved 24 January 2022.
11. Lusk, Jayson (23 September 2016). "Why Industrial Farms Are Good for the Environment" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on 23 September 2016. Before 'factory farming' became a pejorative, agricultural scholars of the mid-20th century were calling for farmers to do just that — become more factorylike and businesslike. From that time, farm sizes have risen significantly. It is precisely this large size that is often criticized today in the belief that large farms put profit ahead of soil and animal health.
12. "Why Factory Farming Isn't What You Think". Forbes . June 2015.
13. Sources discussing "intensive farming", "intensive agriculture" or "factory farming":
    • Fraser, David. Animal welfare and the intensification of animal production: An alternative interpretation, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2005. Turner, Jacky. "History of factory farming" Archived November 16, 2013, at the Wayback Machine , United Nations: "Fifty years ago in Europe, intensification of animal production was seen as the road to national food security and a better diet ... The intensive systems – called 'factory farms' – were characterised by confinement of the animals at high stocking density, often in barren and unnatural conditions."
    • Humphrys, John. Why the organic revolution had to happen, The Observer, April 21, 2001: "Nor is a return to 'primitive' farming practices the only alternative to factory farming and highly intensive agriculture."
    • "Head to head: Intensive farming", BBC News, March 6, 2001: "Here, Green MEP Caroline Lucas takes issue with the intensive farming methods of recent decades ... In the wake of the spread of BSE from the UK to the continent of Europe, the German Government has appointed an Agriculture Minister from the Green Party. She intends to end factory farming in her country. This must be the way forward and we should end industrial agriculture in this country as well."
    • "Annex 2. Permitted substances for the production of organic foods", Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations: "'Factory' farming refers to industrial management systems that are heavily reliant on veterinary and feed inputs not permitted in organic agriculture.
    • "Head to head: Intensive farming", BBC News, March 6, 2001: "Here, Green MEP Caroline Lucas takes issue with the intensive farming methods of recent decades ... In the wake of the spread of BSE from the UK to the continent of Africa, the German Government has appointed an Agriculture Minister from the Green Party. She intends to end factory farming in her country. This must be the way forward and we should end industrial agriculture in this country as well."
14. Kaufman, Marc (26 January 2007). "Largest Pork Processor to Phase Out Crates". ISSN   0190-8286 . Retrieved 29 October 2025.
15. Nierenberg, Danielle (2005). Mastny, Lisa (ed.). Happier Meals: Rethinking the Global Meat Industry . Vol. 171. Washington, D.C.: Worldwatch Institute. ISBN   978-1-878071-77-4. LCCN   2005932799. OCLC   62104329. S2CID   152935538.
16. "Intensive animal agriculture". FAIRR. Retrieved 18 January 2025.
17. Bolotnikova, Marina (7 August 2024). "How Factory Farming Ends". Vox. Retrieved 18 January 2025.
18. Harari, Yuval Noah (25 September 2015). "Industrial farming is one of the worst crimes in history". The Guardian. ISSN   0261-3077 . Retrieved 18 January 2025.
19. Greenwald, Glenn (5 October 2017). "The FBI's Hunt for Two Missing Piglets Reveals the Federal Cover-Up of Barbaric Factory Farms". The Intercept . Retrieved 5 October 2017.
20. van der Zee, Bibi (4 October 2017). "Why factory farming is not just cruel – but also a threat to all life on the planet". The Guardian. Retrieved 5 October 2017.
21. Miralha, Lorrayne; Muenich, Rebecca L.; Schaffer-Smith, Danica; Myint, Soe W. (15 December 2021). "Spatiotemporal land use change and environmental degradation surrounding CAFOs in Michigan and North Carolina". Science of The Total Environment. 800: 149391. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.149391. ISSN   0048-9697.
22. Cassidy, Emily S; West, Paul C; Gerber, James S; Foley, Jonathan A (1 September 2013). "Redefining agricultural yields: from tonnes to people nourished per hectare". Environmental Research Letters. 8 (3): 034015. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/8/3/034015. ISSN   1748-9326.
23. "Concentrated animal feeding operations", Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, United States Department of Health and Human Services.
24. "The Welfare of Intensively Kept Pigs  – Report of the Scientific Veterinary Committee – Adopted 30 September 1997 Archived May 22, 2013, at the Wayback Machine , European Commission, and "Opinion of the AHAW Panel related to the welfare aspects of various systems of keeping laying hens", European Food Safety Authority (March 7, 2005)
25. Blaine Harden (28 December 2003). "Supplements used in factory farming can spread disease". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 2 March 2008. Retrieved 28 May 2007.
26. A. Dennis McBride (7 December 1998). "The Association of Health Effects with Exposure to Odors from Hog Farm Operations". North Carolina Department of Health and Human Services.
27. Jennifer Ackerman. "Food Article, Foodborne Illness Information, Pathogen Facts". National Geographic. Archived from the original on 12 May 2008. Retrieved 6 September 2015.
28. ^{[23] [24] [25] [26] [27]}
29. Nibert, David (2013). Animal Oppression and Human Violence: Domesecration, Capitalism, and Global Conflict. Columbia University Press. p. 228. ISBN   978-0231151894.
30. Lauber, Kathrin; Morris, Viveca; Jacquet, Jennifer; Li, Peter; Möller, Ina; Secchi, Silvia; Wijeratna, Alex; Bona, Melina De (14 October 2025), Roberts, J. Timmons; Milani, Carlos R. S.; Jacquet, Jennifer; Downie, Christian (eds.), "The Animal Agriculture Industry's Role in Obstructing Climate Action", Climate Obstruction (1 ed.), Oxford University PressNew York, pp. 98–138, doi:10.1093/oso/9780197787144.003.0004, ISBN   978-0-19-778714-4 , retrieved 29 October 2025
31. Harvey, Fiona; Wasley, Andrew; Davies, Madlen (18 July 2017). "Rise of mega farms: how the US model of intensive farming is invading the world". The Guardian. ISSN   0261-3077 . Retrieved 29 October 2025.
32. Sandra Laville; Helena Horton (12 June 2025). "Revealed: More than 24,000 factory farms have opened across Europe". The Guardian. Retrieved 29 October 2025.
33. Noted. "Following the call of New Zealand's abandoned freezing works". Noted. Archived from the original on 25 May 2019. Retrieved 19 June 2019.
34. Monica Reinagel (2 August 2016). "What's the Definition of Processed Meat?". Scientific American. Retrieved 27 January 2022.
35. Parés, D; Saguer, E; Carretero, C. (2011). "Blood By-Products as Ingredients in Processed Meat". Processed Meats: Improving Safety, Nutrition and Quality. Woodhead Publishing. pp. 218–242. ISBN   978-1-84569-466-1.
36. "What is processed meat?". BBC News. 2015. Archived from the original on 27 April 2024.
37. "What You Should Know About Processed Meat". WebMD. 2023.
38. "Processed meat and cancer: What you need to know" (PDF). World Cancer Research Fund. 2023.
39. Pearson, A. M.; Tauber, F. W. (6 December 2012). Processed Meats. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN   978-94-010-9692-8.Introduction
40. Rock, Cheryl L.; Thomson, Cynthia; Gansler, Ted; Gapstur, Susan M.; McCullough, Marjorie L.; Patel, Alpa V.; Andrews, Kimberly S.; Bandera, Elisa V.; Spees, Colleen K.; Robien, Kimberly; Hartman, Sheri; Sullivan, Kristen; Grant, Barbara L.; Hamilton, Kathryn K.; Kushi, Lawrence H.; Caan, Bette J.; Kibbe, Debra; Black, Jessica Donze; Wiedt, Tracy L.; McMahon, Catherine; Sloan, Kirsten; Doyle, Colleen (2020). "American Cancer Society guideline for diet and physical activity for cancer prevention". CA. 70 (4): 245–271. doi: 10.3322/caac.21591 . PMID   32515498. S2CID   219550658.
41. "Diet, nutrition, physical activity and stomach cancer" (PDF). American Institute for Cancer Research and World Cancer Research Fund. 2018. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 October 2023. Retrieved 30 January 2023.
42. "Cancer: Carcinogenicity of the consumption of red meat and processed meat". IARC. 26 October 2015. Retrieved 19 September 2022.
43. "Does eating processed and red meat cause cancer?". cancerresearchuk.org. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
44. "Steroid Hormone Implants Used for Growth in Food-Producing Animals". FAO. 2015. Archived from the original on 9 July 2009.
45. "Definition of veganism". The Vegan Society. Retrieved 6 June 2018.
46. "The Six Principles of the Abolitionist Approach to Animal Rights – Animal Rights The Abolitionist Approach". www.abolitionistapproach.com. Retrieved 6 June 2018.
47. Dyal, Jonathan W.; Grant, Michael P.; Broadwater, Kendra; Bjork, Adam; Waltenburg, Michelle A.; Gibbins, John D.; Hale, Christa; Silver, Maggie; Fischer, Marc; Steinberg, Jonathan; Basler, Colin A.; Jacobs, Jesica R.; Kennedy, Erin D.; Tomasi, Suzanne; Trout, Douglas; Hornsby-Myers, Jennifer; Oussayef, Nadia L.; Delaney, Lisa J.; Patel, Ketki; Shetty, Varun; Kline, Kelly E.; Schroeder, Betsy; Herlihy, Rachel K.; House, Jennifer; Jervis, Rachel; Clayton, Joshua L.; Ortbahn, Dustin; Austin, Connie; Berl, Erica; Moore, Zack; Buss, Bryan F.; Stover, Derry; Westergaard, Ryan; Pray, Ian; DeBolt, Meghan; Person, Amy; Gabel, Julie; Kittle, Theresa S.; Hendren, Pamela; Rhea, Charles; Holsinger, Caroline; Dunn, John; Turabelidze, George; Ahmed, Farah S.; deFijter, Siestke; Pedati, Caitlin S.; Rattay, Karyl; Smith, Erica E.; Luna-Pinto, Carolina; Cooley, Laura A.; Saydah, Sharon; Preacely, Nykiconia D.; Maddox, Ryan A.; Lundeen, Elizabeth; Goodwin, Bradley; Karpathy, Sandor E.; Griffing, Sean; Jenkins, Mary M.; Lowry, Garry; Schwarz, Rachel D.; Yoder, Jonathan; Peacock, Georgina; Walke, Henry T.; Rose, Dale A.; Honein, Margaret A. (8 May 2020). "COVID-19 Among Workers in Meat and Poultry Processing Facilities ― 19 States, April 2020". MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 69 (18). doi: 10.15585/mmwr.mm6918e3 . PMID   32379731. S2CID   218555116. COVID-19 cases among U.S. workers in 115 meat and poultry processing facilities were reported by 19 states. Among approximately 130,000 workers at these facilities, 4,913 cases and 20 deaths occurred.
48. "USDA ERS – Retail Meat Prices & Price Spreads". Ers.usda.gov. 2 December 2016. Archived from the original on 28 October 2016. Retrieved 16 January 2017.
49. "Food wastage footprint – Full cost accounting" (PDF). FAO. 2014.
50. "Unfair fare: Why prices for meat from small local farms are too high". Ethicurean.com. Archived from the original on 28 January 2017. Retrieved 16 January 2017.
51. "Getting Real About the High Price of Cheap Food". TIME. 2009.
52. "The Triple Whopper Environmental Impact of Global Meat Production". TIME. 2013.
53. "RSPCA says egg industry is 'misleading the public' on free range". Australian Broadcasting Corporation . 24 September 2014. Archived from the original on 1 November 2016. Retrieved 26 May 2015.
54. "What The Rise Of Cage-Free Eggs Means For Chickens". NPR . Archived from the original on 11 February 2021. Retrieved 26 May 2015.
55. Kelto, Anders (23 December 2014). "Farm Fresh? Natural? Eggs Not Always What They're Cracked Up To Be". NPR . Archived from the original on 3 November 2020. Retrieved 26 May 2015.
56. Bartlett, Harriet; Holmes, Mark A.; Petrovan, Silviu O.; Williams, David R.; Wood, James L. N.; Balmford, Andrew (June 2022). "Understanding the relative risks of zoonosis emergence under contrasting approaches to meeting livestock product demand". Royal Society Open Science. 9 (6) 211573. Bibcode:2022RSOS....911573B. doi:10.1098/rsos.211573. ISSN   2054-5703. PMC   9214290 . PMID   35754996.
57. "Compassion in World Farming – Meat chickens – Welfare issues". Compassion In World Farming. Archived from the original on 23 October 2013. Retrieved 22 October 2013.
58. Arsoy, Dilek (1 January 2020). "Herd management and welfare assessment of dairy goat farms in Northern Cyprus by using breeding, health, reproduction, and biosecurity indicators". Tropical Animal Health and Production. 52 (1): 71–78. doi:10.1007/s11250-019-01990-3. ISSN   1573-7438. PMID   31325019.
59. Phillips 2009. p 10.
60. Axworthy, Nicole (10 April 2023). "85 Percent of Meat Welfare Claims Lack Substantiation, New Research Finds". VegNews . Retrieved 17 April 2023.
61. "Deceptive Consumer Labels" (PDF). Animal Welfare Institute. 2023. Retrieved 17 April 2023.
62. Mitigation of Climate Change: Full report (Report). IPCC Sixth Assessment Report. 2022. 7.3.2.1 page 771.
63. Scanes, Colin G. (2018). "Chapter 18 - Impact of Agricultural Animals on the Environment". Animals and Human Society. Academic Press. pp. 427–449. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-805247-1.00025-3. ISBN   978-0-12-805247-1.
64. Grossi, Giampiero; Goglio, Pietro; Vitali, Andrea; Williams, Adrian G (2019). "Livestock and climate change: impact of livestock on climate and mitigation strategies". Animal Frontiers. 9 (1): 69–76. doi: 10.1093/af/vfy034 . PMC   7015462 . PMID   32071797.
65. Staff, The PLOS ONE (2020). "Correction: The environmental consequences of climate-driven agricultural frontiers". PLOS One . 15 (7): e0236028. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0228305 . PMC   7015311 . PMID   32049959.
66. Carrington, Damian (10 October 2018). "Huge reduction in meat-eating 'essential' to avoid climate breakdown". The Guardian . Retrieved 16 October 2017.
67. Eisen, Michael B.; Brown, Patrick O. (1 February 2022). "Rapid global phaseout of animal agriculture has the potential to stabilize greenhouse gas levels for 30 years and offset 68 percent of CO₂ emissions this century". PLOS Climate. 1 (2) e0000010. doi: 10.1371/journal.pclm.0000010 . ISSN   2767-3200. S2CID   246499803.
68. "Meatpacking". Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Retrieved 23 May 2019.
69. Lowe, Peggy (11 August 2016). "Working 'The Chain,' Slaughterhouse Workers Face Lifelong Injuries". NPR.
70. "Two amputations a week: the cost of working in a US meat plant". The Guardian. 5 July 2018. Retrieved 23 May 2019.
71. Lewis, Cora (18 February 2018). "America's Largest Meat Producer Averages One Amputation Per Month". Buzzfeed News. Retrieved 23 May 2019.
72. "Revealed: Shocking safety record of UK meat plants". The Bureau of Investigative Journalism. 29 July 2018. Retrieved 23 May 2019.
73. Francesca Iulietto, Maria; Sechi, Paola (3 July 2018). "Noise assessment in slaughterhouses by means of a smartphone app". Italian Journal of Food Safety. 7 (2): 7053. doi:10.4081/ijfs.2018.7053. PMC   6036995 . PMID   30046554.
74. McLean, D; Cheng, S (June 2004). "Mortality and cancer incidence in New Zealand meat workers". Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine. 61 (6): 541–547. doi:10.1136/oem.2003.010587. PMC   1763658 . PMID   15150395.
75. Eisnitz, Gail A. (1997). Slaughterhouse: The Shocking Story of Greed, Neglect, and Inhumane Treatment Inside the U.S. Meat Industry. Prometheus Books. ISBN   978-1-57392-166-4.^{[ page needed ]}
76. Sharman, Jon (30 January 2019). "Sheep farmer who felt so guilty about driving his lambs to slaughter rescues them and becomes a vegetarian". The Independent.
77. Victor, Karen; Barnard, Antoni (20 April 2016). "Slaughtering for a living: A hermeneutic phenomenological perspective on the well-being of slaughterhouse employees". International Journal of Qualitative Studies on Health and Well-being. 11 30266. doi:10.3402/qhw.v11.30266. PMC   4841092 . PMID   27104340.
78. "PTSD in the Slaughterhouse". The Texas Observer . 7 February 2012. Retrieved 30 January 2019.
79. Newkey-Burden, Chas (19 November 2018). "There's a Christmas crisis going on: no one wants to kill your dinner – Chas Newkey-Burden". The Guardian . Retrieved 30 January 2019.
80. "Psychological Distress Among Slaughterhouse Workers Warrants Further Study – SPH – Boston University". School of Public Health. Retrieved 30 January 2019.
81. Dillard, Jennifer (September 2007). "A Slaughterhouse Nightmare: Psychological Harm Suffered by Slaughterhouse Employees and the Possibility of Redress through Legal Reform". ResearchGate.net. Retrieved 30 January 2019.
82. S, Serina; hu (2 March 2018). "'I couldn't look them in the eye': Farmer who couldn't slaughter his cows is turning his farm vegan". Inews.co.uk. Retrieved 30 January 2019.
83. Fox, Katrina. "Meet The Former Livestock Agent Who Started An International Vegan Food Business". Forbes.com. Retrieved 30 January 2019.
84. Lebwohl, Michael (25 January 2016). "A Call to Action: Psychological Harm in Slaughterhouse Workers". The Yale Global Health Review. Retrieved 23 May 2019.
85. Nagesh, Ashitha (31 December 2017). "The harrowing psychological toll of slaughterhouse work". Metro. Retrieved 23 May 2019.
86. Baran, B. E.; Rogelberg, S. G.; Clausen, T (2016). "Routinized killing of animals: Going beyond dirty work and prestige to understand the well-being of slaughterhouse workers". Organization. 23 (3): 351–369. doi:10.1177/1350508416629456. S2CID   148368906.
87. "The Psychological Damage of Slaughterhouse Work". PTSDJournal. Retrieved 23 May 2019.
88. Waldman, Peter (29 December 2017). "America's Worst Graveyard Shift Is Grinding Up Workers". Bloomberg.com. Retrieved 23 May 2019.
89. Grabell, Michael (1 May 2017). "Exploitation and Abuse at the Chicken Plant". The New Yorker. Retrieved 23 May 2019.
90. Varia, Nisha (11 December 2010). "Rights on the Line". Human Rights Watch. Retrieved 23 May 2019.
91. Grabell, Michael (23 May 2018). "Live on the Live". Oxfam America. Retrieved 23 May 2019.
92. Huang, Jeff (10 March 2025). "How Beyond Meat and the plant-based meat industry lost their allure". CNBC. Retrieved 29 October 2025.
93. Lurie-Luke, Elena (2024). "Alternative protein sources: science powered startups to fuel food innovation". Nature Communications . 15 (1): 4425. Bibcode:2024NatCo..15.4425L. doi: 10.1038/s41467-024-47091-0 . PMC   11133469 . PMID   38806477.
94. van der Weele, Cor; Feindt, Peter; Jan van der Goot, Atze; van Mierlo, Barbara; van Boekel, Martinus (2019). "Meat alternatives: an integrative comparison". Trends in Food Science and Technology . 88: 505–512. doi: 10.1016/j.tifs.2019.04.018 .
95. Nezlek, John B; Forestell, Catherine A (2022). "Meat substitutes: current status, potential benefits, and remaining challenges". Current Opinion In Food Science . 47 100890. doi: 10.1016/j.cofs.2022.100890 .
96. Takefuji, Yoshiyasu (2021). "Sustainable protein alternatives". Trends in Food Science and Technology . 107: 429–431. doi: 10.1016/j.tifs.2020.11.012 .
97. Zahari, Izalin; Östbring, Karolina; Purhagen, Jeanette K.; Rayner, Marilyn (2022). "Plant-Based Meat Analogues from Alternative Protein: A Systematic Literature Review". Foods . 11 (18): 2870. doi: 10.3390/foods11182870 . PMC   9498552 . PMID   36140998.
98. Lima, Miguel; Costa, Rui; Rodrigues, Ivo; Lameiras, Jorge; Botelho, Goreti (2022). "A Narrative Review of Alternative Protein Sources: Highlights on Meat, Fish, Egg and Dairy Analogues". Foods . 11 (14): 2053. doi: 10.3390/foods11142053 . PMC   9316106 . PMID   35885293.
99. Quintieri, Laura; Nitride, Chiara; De Angelis, Elisabetta; Lamonaca, Antonella; Pilolli, Rosa; Russo, Francesco; Monaci, Linda (2023). "Alternative Protein Sources and Novel Foods: Benefits, Food Applications and Safety Issues". Nutrients . 15 (6): 1509. doi: 10.3390/nu15061509 . PMC   10054669 . PMID   36986239.
100. Holmes, Bob (20 July 2022). "How sustainable are fake meats?" . Knowable Magazine. doi: 10.1146/knowable-071922-1 . Retrieved 1 August 2022.
101. "All sizzle, no steak: how Singapore became the centre of the plant-based meat industry". The Guardian. 5 November 2022.
102. Pang, Shinsiong; Chen, Mu-Chen (April 2024). "Investigating the impact of consumer environmental consciousness on food supply chain: The case of plant-based meat alternatives". Technological Forecasting and Social Change. 201 123190. doi:10.1016/j.techfore.2023.123190. ISSN   0040-1625.
103. Ahmad, Khurshid; Lim, Jeong-Ho; Lee, Eun-Ju; Chun, Hee-Jin; Ali, Shahid; Ahmad, Syed Sayeed; Shaikh, Sibhghatulla; Choi, Inho (15 December 2021). "Extracellular Matrix and the Production of Cultured Meat". Foods. 10 (12): 3116. doi: 10.3390/foods10123116 . ISSN   2304-8158. PMC   8700801 . PMID   34945667.
104. Rodrigues, André L.; Rodrigues, Carlos A. V.; Gomes, Ana R.; Vieira, Sara F.; Badenes, Sara M.; Diogo, Maria M.; Cabral, Joaquim M.S. (15 October 2018). "Dissolvable Microcarriers Allow Scalable Expansion And Harvesting Of Human Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells Under Xeno-Free Conditions" . Biotechnology Journal. 14 (4) e1800461. doi:10.1002/biot.201800461. ISSN   1860-6768. PMID   30320457.
105. Moroni, Lorenzo; Burdick, Jason A.; Highley, Christopher; Lee, Sang Jin; Morimoto, Yuya; Takeuchi, Shoji; Yoo, James J. (26 April 2018). "Biofabrication strategies for 3D in vitro models and regenerative medicine". Nature Reviews Materials. 3 (5): 21–37. Bibcode:2018NatRM...3...21M. doi:10.1038/s41578-018-0006-y. ISSN   2058-8437. PMC   6586020 . PMID   31223488.
106. Daly, Andrew C.; Kelly, Daniel J. (8 January 2019). "Biofabrication of spatially organised tissues by directing the growth of cellular spheroids within 3D printed polymeric microchambers". Biomaterials. 197: 194–206. doi:10.1016/j.biomaterials.2018.12.028. hdl: 2262/91315 . PMID   30660995.
107. Alblawi, Adel; Ranjani, Achalla Sri; Yasmin, Humaira; Gupta, Sharda; Bit, Arindam; Rahimi-Gorji, Mohammad (20 October 2019). "Scaffold-free: A developing technique in field of tissue engineering" . Computer Methods and Programs in Biomedicine. 185 105148. doi:10.1016/j.cmpb.2019.105148. PMID   31678793.
108. DuBois, Christine; Tan, Chee-Beng; Mintz, Sidney (2008). The World of Soy. National University of Singapore Press. pp. 101–102. ISBN   978-9971-69-413-5.
109. Adamson, Melitta Weiss (2004). Food in Medieval Times. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 72. ISBN   978-0-313-32147-4.
110. Gaydhane, Mrunalini K.; Mahanta, Urbashi; Sharma, Chandra S.; Khandelwal, Mudrika; Ramakrishna, Seeram (2018). "Cultured meat: state of the art and future". Biomanufacturing Reviews. 3 (1) 1. doi:10.1007/s40898-018-0005-1. S2CID   85513225.
111. Datar, I (January 2010). "Possibilities for an in vitro meat production system". Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies. 11 (1): 13–22. doi:10.1016/j.ifset.2009.10.007. Archived from the original on 27 December 2022. Retrieved 3 January 2023.
112. De Lorenzo, Daniela (17 March 2022). "Dutch Parliament Approves Cultured Meat Tasting In The Netherlands". Forbes.com . Archived from the original on 7 April 2022. Retrieved 8 April 2022.
113. Patil, R. Akshay; Bhavana, A.; Patil, B. Roopa; Deepak (2024). "Cultured Meat: The Upcoming Meat Production having Sustainable Benefits over Conventional Meat Production: A Review". Agricultural Reviews. 45 (1): 82–88. doi: 10.18805/ag.R-2333 .
114. Hubalek, Sophie; Post, Mark J.; Moutsatsou, Panagiota (2022). "Towards resource-efficient and cost-efficient cultured meat". Current Opinion in Food Science . 47 100885. doi: 10.1016/j.cofs.2022.100885 .
115. Post, Mark (4 December 2013). "Medical technology to Produce Food". Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. 94 (6): 1039–1041. doi:10.1002/jsfa.6474. PMID   24214798.
116. Gaydhane, Mrunalini K.; Mahanta, Urbashi; Sharma, Chandra S.; Khandelwal, Mudrika; Ramakrishna, Seeram (2018). "Cultured meat: state of the art and future". Biomanufacturing Reviews. 3 (1) 1. doi:10.1007/s40898-018-0005-1.
117. Post, Mark J.; Levenberg, Shulamit; Kaplan, David L.; Genovese, Nicholas; Fu, Jianan; Bryant, Christopher J.; Negowetti, Nicole; Verzijden, Karin; Moutsatsou, Panagiota (2020). "Scientific, sustainability and regulatory challenges of cultured meat". Nature Food . 1 (7): 403–415. doi:10.1038/s43016-020-0112-z. Archived from the original on 13 May 2024. Retrieved 8 April 2024.
118. Bryant, Christopher J (2020). "Culture, meat, and cultured meat". Journal of Animal Science . 98 (8) skaa172. doi:10.1093/jas/skaa172. ISSN   0021-8812. PMC   7398566 . PMID   32745186.
119. Hong, Tae Kyung; Shin, Dong-Min; Choi, Joonhyuk; Do, Jeong Tae; Han, Sung Gu (2021). "Current Issues and Technical Advances in Cultured Meat Production: AReview". Food Science of Animal Resources. 41 (3): 355–372. doi:10.5851/kosfa.2021.e14. ISSN   2636-0772. PMC   8112310 . PMID   34017947.
120. Treich, Nicolas (2021). "Cultured Meat: Promises and Challenges". Environmental and Resource Economics . 79 (1): 33–61. Bibcode:2021EnREc..79...33T. doi:10.1007/s10640-021-00551-3. ISSN   1573-1502. PMC   7977488 . PMID   33758465.
121. Chriki, Sghaier; Ellies-Oury, Marie-Pierre; Hocquette, Jean-François (2022). "Is "cultured meat" a viable alternative to slaughtering animals and a good comprise between animal welfare and human expectations?". Animal Frontiers. 12 (1): 35–42. doi: 10.1093/af/vfac002 . PMC   8929989 . PMID   35311183.
122. Chen, Lu; Guttieres, Donovan; Koenigsberg, Andrea; Barone, Paul W.; Sinskey, Anthony J.; Springs, Stacy L. (2022). "Large-scale cultured meat production: Trends, challenges and promising biomanufacturing technologies". Biomaterials . 280 121274. doi:10.1016/j.biomaterials.2021.121274. PMID   34871881.
123. Edelman, PD; McFarland, DC; Mironov, VA; Matheny, Jason (3 May 2005). "Commentary: In Vitro-Cultured Meat Production". Tissue Engineering. 11 (5–6): 659–662. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.179.588 . doi:10.1089/ten.2005.11.659. PMID   15998207. Archived from the original on 13 May 2024. Retrieved 8 April 2018.
124. Schonwald, Josh (May 2009). "Future Fillet". The University of Chicago Magazine. Archived from the original on 16 October 2013. Retrieved 9 April 2018.
125. Peters, Adele (5 November 2020). "At the first lab-grown meat restaurant, you can eat a 'cultured chicken' sandwich". Fast Company. Archived from the original on 11 February 2021. Retrieved 18 January 2021.
126. Kolyohin, Nick (2 July 2021). "Feature: Israeli cultured meat company aims to redefine industry". Xinhua News Agency. Archived from the original on 5 July 2021. Retrieved 2 July 2021. Instead of cash, SuperMeat asks its guests for a detailed review of dishes that were served.
127. Scully, Matthew (17 January 2021). "Hello Cultured Meat, Goodbye to the Cruelty of Industrial Animal Farming". National Review. Archived from the original on 17 January 2021. Retrieved 18 January 2021.
128. "Diners enjoy world's first restaurant meal made from lab-grown meat". BBC Science Focus Magazine. 26 January 2021. Archived from the original on 22 April 2023. Retrieved 22 April 2023.
129. "What is the most consumed meat in the world?". Archived from the original on 21 October 2021. Retrieved 14 October 2021.
130. "Seafood Without The Sea: Will Lab-Grown Fish Hook Consumers?". 5 May 2019. Archived from the original on 29 October 2021. Retrieved 14 October 2021.
131. "Lab-grown fish makes a debut in Hong Kong". 29 January 2021. Archived from the original on 21 October 2021. Retrieved 14 October 2021.
132. "Investors eat up Orbillion Bio's plans for lab-grown Wagyu beef, elk and bison". 26 April 2021. Archived from the original on 27 October 2021. Retrieved 14 October 2021.
133. "Future Food - In Vitro Meat". futurefood.org. November 2018. Archived from the original on 26 November 2018. Retrieved 26 November 2018.
134. Chauvet, David J. (2018). "Should cultured meat be refused in the name of animal dignity?". Ethical Theory and Moral Practice . 21 (2): 387–411. doi:10.1007/s10677-018-9888-4. S2CID   254464563.
135. Rohrheim, A (June 2016). "Cultured Meat". Sentience Politics. Archived from the original on 1 December 2018. Retrieved 26 November 2018.
136. 2023 State of the Industry Report: Cultivated meat and seafood (PDF) (Report). The Good Food Institute. 2024. Retrieved 11 January 2025.

Further reading

• Fuquay, John W. ed. Encyclopedia of Dairy Sciences (2nd Edition, 4 vol 2011), comprehensive coverage
• Nierenberg, Danielle; Lisa Mastny (2005). "Happier meals: rethinking the global meat industry" (PDF). Worldwatch Institute. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 July 2019. Retrieved 23 February 2018.
• Walsh, Margaret (1982). "From Pork Merchant to Meat Packer: The Midwestern Meat Industry in the Mid Nineteenth Century". Agricultural History. 56 (1): 127–137. JSTOR   3742304.
• Warren, Wilson J. (1 January 2021). "The Meat Industry Goes Back to the Jungle". Current History. 120 (822): 21–27. doi:10.1525/curh.2021.120.822.21. S2CID   231906705.
• "Meat Atlas 2021, facts and figures about animals we eat" (PDF). Friends of the Earth, Heinrich Böll Foundation, Bund für Umwelt und Naturschutz Deutschland. September 2021. Retrieved 9 September 2021.
• Wrenn, J.E.; Squire, E.C. (1926), "Meat Marketing in Great Britain", United States Department of Commerce Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, Trade Promotion Series No. 35, Washington, DC: Government Printing Office