Mineral oil

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Bottle of mineral oil as sold in the U.S. Mineral oil bottle, front.jpg
Bottle of mineral oil as sold in the U.S.

Mineral oil is any of various colorless, odorless, light mixtures of higher alkanes from a mineral source, particularly a distillate of petroleum, [1] as distinct from usually edible vegetable oils.

Contents

The name 'mineral oil' by itself is imprecise, having been used for many specific oils over the past few centuries. Other names, similarly imprecise, include 'white oil', 'paraffin oil', 'liquid paraffin' (a highly refined medical grade), paraffinum liquidum (Latin), and 'liquid petroleum'.

Most often, mineral oil is a liquid obtained from refining crude oil to make gasoline and other petroleum products. Mineral oils used for lubrication are known specifically as base oils. More generally, mineral oil is a transparent, colorless oil, composed mainly of alkanes [2] and cycloalkanes, related to petroleum jelly. It has a density of around 0.8–0.87 g/cm3 (0.029–0.031 lb/cu in). [3]

Nomenclature

Some of the imprecision in the definition of the names used for mineral oil (such as 'white oil') reflects usage by consumers and merchants who did not know, and usually had no need of knowing, the oil's precise chemical makeup. Merriam-Webster states the first use of the term "mineral oil" as being 1771. [4] Prior to the late 19th century, the chemical science to determine the makeup of an oil was unavailable in any case. A similar lexical situation occurred with the term "white metal".

"Mineral oil", sold widely and cheaply in the United States, is not sold as such in the United Kingdom. Instead, British pharmacologists use the terms "paraffinum perliquidum" for light mineral oil and "paraffinum liquidum" or "paraffinum subliquidum" for somewhat more viscous varieties. The term "paraffinum liquidum" is often seen on the ingredient lists of baby oil and cosmetics. British aromatherapists commonly use the term "white mineral oil". In lubrication, mineral oils make up Group I, II, and III base oils that are refined from petroleum. [5] [6]

Toxicology

The World Health Organization classifies minimally treated mineral oils as carcinogens group 1 known to be carcinogenic to humans; [7] Highly refined oils are classified group 3 as not suspected to be carcinogenic, from known available information sufficient to classify them as harmless. [8]

The UK Food Standards Agency (FSA) carried out a risk assessment on the migration of components from printing inks used on carton-board packaging—including mineral oils—into food in 2011, based on the findings of a survey conducted in the same year. The FSA did not identify any specific food safety concerns due to inks. [9]

People can be exposed to mineral oil mist in the workplace through inhalation, skin contact, or eye contact. In the United States, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration has set the legal limit for mineral oil mist exposure in the workplace as 5 mg/m3 (0.0022 gr/cu ft) over an 8-hour workday, the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health has set a recommended exposure limit of 5 mg/m3 (0.0022 gr/cu ft) over an 8-hour workday, with a previous limit of 10 mg/m3 (0.0044 gr/cu ft) for short-term exposure rescinded according to the 2019 Guide to Occupational Exposure Values compiled by the ACGIH. Levels of 2,500 mg/m3 (1.1 gr/cu ft) and higher are indicated as immediately dangerous to life and health. However, current toxicological data[ which? ][ whose? ] does not contain any evidence of irreversible health effects due to short-term exposure at any level; the current value of 2,500 mg/m3 (1.1 gr/cu ft) is indicated as being arbitrary. [10]

Applications

Biomedicine

Laxative

Mineral oil is used as a laxative to alleviate constipation by retaining water in stool and the intestines. [11] Although generally considered safe, as noted above, there is a concern of mist inhalation leading to serious health conditions such as pneumonia. [12]

Mineral oil can be administered either orally [13] or rectally. [14] It is sometimes used as a lubricant in enema preparations as most of the ingested material is excreted in the stool rather than being absorbed by the body. [15]

Personal lubricant

It is recommended by the American Society for Reproductive Medicine for use as a fertility-preserving vaginal lubrication. [16] However, it is known that oils degrade latex condoms. [17]

Cell culture

Mineral oil of special purity is often used as an overlay covering micro drops of culture medium in petri dishes, during the culture of oocytes and embryos in IVF and related procedures. The use of oil presents several advantages over the open culture system: it allows for several oocytes and embryos to be cultured simultaneously, but observed separately, in the same dish; it minimizes concentration and pH changes by preventing evaporation of the medium; it allows for a significant reduction of the medium volume used (as few as 20 μl (0.0012 cu in) per oocyte instead of several milliliters for the batch culture); and it serves as a temperature buffer minimizing thermal shock to the cells while the dish is taken out of the incubator for observation.

Veterinary

Over-the-counter veterinarian-use mineral oil is intended as a mild laxative for pets and livestock. [18] Certain mineral oils are used in livestock vaccines, as an adjuvant to stimulate a cell-mediated immune response to the vaccinating agent. In the poultry industry, plain mineral oil can also be swabbed onto the feet of chickens infected with scaly mites on the shank, toes, and webs. Mineral oil suffocates these tiny parasites. [19] In beekeeping, food grade mineral oil-saturated paper napkins placed in hives are used as a treatment for tracheal and other mites. It is also used along with a cotton swab to remove un-shed skin (ashes) on reptiles such as lizards and snakes.

Cosmetics

Mineral oil is a common ingredient in baby lotions, cold creams, ointments, and cosmetics. It is a lightweight inexpensive oil that is odorless and tasteless. It can be used on eyelashes to prevent brittleness and breaking and, in cold cream, is also used to remove creme make-up and temporary tattoos. One of the common concerns regarding the use of mineral oil is its presence on several lists of comedogenic substances.[ citation needed ] These lists of comedogenic substances were developed many years ago and are frequently quoted in the dermatological literature.

The type of highly refined and purified mineral oil found in cosmetic and skincare products is noncomedogenic (does not clog pores). [20]

Mechanical, electrical, and industrial

An electrical radiator that uses mineral oil as a heat transfer fluid Oil heater.jpg
An electrical radiator that uses mineral oil as a heat transfer fluid

Mineral oil is used in a variety of industrial/mechanical capacities as a non-conductive coolant or thermal fluid in electric components, as it does not conduct electricity and functions to displace air and water. Some examples are in transformers, where it is known as transformer oil, and in high-voltage switchgear, where mineral oil is used as an insulator and coolant to disperse switching arcs. [21] Because it is noncompressible, mineral oil is used as a hydraulic fluid in hydraulic machinery and vehicles.

The dielectric constant of mineral oil ranges from 2.3 at 50 °C (122 °F) to 2.1 at 200 °C (392 °F). [22] Electric space heaters sometimes use mineral oil as a heat transfer oil. Lubricants used for older refrigerator and air conditioning compressors are based on mineral oil, especially those using R-22 refrigerant.

Mineral oil is used as a lubricant, a cutting fluid, and as a conditioning oil for jute fibres selected for textile production, a process known as 'jute batching'. [23] Spindle oils are light mineral oils used as lubricants in textile industries.

An often-cited limitation of mineral oil is that it is poorly biodegradable; in some applications, vegetable oils such as cottonseed oil or rapeseed oil may be used instead. [24]

Food preparation

A freshly oiled cutting board. End grain cutting board.jpg
A freshly oiled cutting board.

Because of its properties that prevent water absorption, combined with its lack of flavor and odor, food grade mineral oil is a popular preservative for wooden cutting boards, salad bowls, and utensils. Periodically rubbing a small amount of mineral oil into a wooden kitchen item impedes absorption of food liquids, and thereby food odors, easing the process of hygienically cleaning wooden utensils and equipment. The use of mineral oil to impede water absorption can also prevent cracks and splits from forming in wooden utensils due to wetting and drying cycles. However, some of the mineral oil used on these items, if in contact with food, will be picked up by it and therefore ingested.[ citation needed ]

Mineral oil is occasionally used in the food industry, particularly for confectionery. In this application, it is typically used for the glossy effect it produces, and to prevent the candy pieces from adhering to each other. It has been discouraged for use in children's foods, [25] though it is still found in many confectioneries, including Swedish Fish. [26] The use of food grade mineral oil is self-limiting because of its laxative effect. The maximum daily intake is calculated to be about 100 mg (1.5 gr), of which some 80 mg (1.2 gr) are contributed from its use on machines in the baking industry. [15]

Other uses

Applying mineral oil to a butcher block counter top Mineral oil treating butcher block.png
Applying mineral oil to a butcher block counter top

Mineral oil's ubiquity has led to its use in some niche applications as well:

See also

Related Research Articles

Kerosene, or paraffin, is a combustible hydrocarbon liquid which is derived from petroleum. It is widely used as a fuel in aviation as well as households. Its name derives from Greek: κηρός (kērós) meaning "wax", and was registered as a trademark by Nova Scotia geologist and inventor Abraham Gesner in 1854 before evolving into a generic trademark. It is sometimes spelled kerosine in scientific and industrial usage.

A lubricant is a substance that helps to reduce friction between surfaces in mutual contact, which ultimately reduces the heat generated when the surfaces move. It may also have the function of transmitting forces, transporting foreign particles, or heating or cooling the surfaces. The property of reducing friction is known as lubricity.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Paraffin wax</span> Soft colorless solid derived from petroleum, coal or shale oil

Paraffin wax is a soft colorless solid derived from petroleum, coal, or oil shale that consists of a mixture of hydrocarbon molecules containing between 20 and 40 carbon atoms. It is solid at room temperature and begins to melt above approximately 37 °C (99 °F), and its boiling point is above 370 °C (698 °F). Common applications for paraffin wax include lubrication, electrical insulation, and candles; dyed paraffin wax can be made into crayons. It is distinct from kerosene and other petroleum products that are sometimes called paraffin.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hexane</span> Chemical compound

Hexane or n-hexane is an organic compound, a straight-chain alkane with six carbon atoms and the molecular formula C6H14.

Naphtha is a flammable liquid hydrocarbon mixture. Generally, it is a fraction of crude oil, but it can also be produced from natural-gas condensates, petroleum distillates, and the fractional distillation of coal tar and peat. In some industries and regions, the name naphtha refers to crude oil or refined petroleum products such as kerosene or diesel fuel.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vegetable oil</span> Oil extracted from seeds or from other parts of fruits

Vegetable oils, or vegetable fats, are oils extracted from seeds or from other parts of fruits. Like animal fats, vegetable fats are mixtures of triglycerides. Soybean oil, grape seed oil, and cocoa butter are examples of seed oils, or fats from seeds. Olive oil, palm oil, and rice bran oil are examples of fats from other parts of fruits. In common usage, vegetable oil may refer exclusively to vegetable fats which are liquid at room temperature. Vegetable oils are usually edible.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Oil refinery</span> Facility that processes crude oil

An oil refinery or petroleum refinery is an industrial process plant where petroleum is transformed and refined into products such as gasoline (petrol), diesel fuel, asphalt base, fuel oils, heating oil, kerosene, liquefied petroleum gas and petroleum naphtha. Petrochemical feedstock like ethylene and propylene can also be produced directly by cracking crude oil without the need of using refined products of crude oil such as naphtha. The crude oil feedstock has typically been processed by an oil production plant. There is usually an oil depot at or near an oil refinery for the storage of incoming crude oil feedstock as well as bulk liquid products. In 2020, the total capacity of global refineries for crude oil was about 101.2 million barrels per day.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Motor oil</span> Lubricant used for lubrication of internal combustion engines

Motor oil, engine oil, or engine lubricant is any one of various substances used for the lubrication of internal combustion engines. They typically consist of base oils enhanced with various additives, particularly antiwear additives, detergents, dispersants, and, for multi-grade oils, viscosity index improvers. The main function of motor oil is to reduce friction and wear on moving parts and to clean the engine from sludge and varnish (detergents). It also neutralizes acids that originate from fuel and from oxidation of the lubricant (detergents), improves the sealing of piston rings, and cools the engine by carrying heat away from moving parts.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cutting fluid</span> Coolants and lubricants used in metalworking

Cutting fluid is a type of coolant and lubricant designed specifically for metalworking processes, such as machining and stamping. There are various kinds of cutting fluids, which include oils, oil-water emulsions, pastes, gels, aerosols (mists), and air or other gases. Cutting fluids are made from petroleum distillates, animal fats, plant oils, water and air, or other raw ingredients. Depending on context and on which type of cutting fluid is being considered, it may be referred to as cutting fluid, cutting oil, cutting compound, coolant, or lubricant.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Petroleum jelly</span> Chemical substance used as a lubricating agent and topical ointment

Petroleum jelly, petrolatum, white petrolatum, soft paraffin, or multi-hydrocarbon, CAS number 8009-03-8, is a semi-solid mixture of hydrocarbons, originally promoted as a topical ointment for its healing properties. Vaseline has been an American brand of petroleum jelly since 1870.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Synthetic oil</span> Lubricant consisting of artificially made chemical compounds

Synthetic oil is a lubricant consisting of chemical compounds that are artificially modified or synthesised. Synthetic lubricants can be manufactured using chemically modified petroleum components rather than whole crude oil, but can also be synthesized from other raw materials. The base material, however, is still overwhelmingly crude oil that is distilled and then modified physically and chemically. The actual synthesis process and composition of additives is generally a commercial trade secret and will vary among producers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">White spirit</span> Petroleum-derived clear, transparent liquid

White spirit (AU, UK and Ireland) or mineral spirits (US, Canada), also known as mineral turpentine (AU/NZ), turpentine substitute, and petroleum spirits, is a petroleum-derived clear liquid used as a common organic solvent in painting. There are also terms for specific kinds of white spirit, including Stoddard solvent and solvent naphtha (petroleum). White spirit is often used as a paint thinner, or as a component thereof, though paint thinner is a broader category of solvent. Odorless mineral spirits (OMS) have been refined to remove the more toxic aromatic compounds, and are recommended for applications such as oil painting.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Petroleum product</span> Products ultimately derived from crude oil

Petroleum products are materials derived from crude oil (petroleum) as it is processed in oil refineries. Unlike petrochemicals, which are a collection of well-defined usually pure organic compounds, petroleum products are complex mixtures. Most petroleum is converted into petroleum products, which include several classes of fuels.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2-Butoxyethanol</span> Chemical compound

2-Butoxyethanol is an organic compound with the chemical formula BuOC2H4OH (Bu = CH3CH2CH2CH2). This colorless liquid has a sweet, ether-like odor, as it derives from the family of glycol ethers, and is a butyl ether of ethylene glycol. As a relatively nonvolatile, inexpensive solvent, it is used in many domestic and industrial products because of its properties as a surfactant. It is a known respiratory irritant and can be acutely toxic, but animal studies did not find it to be mutagenic, and no studies suggest it is a human carcinogen. A study of 13 classroom air contaminants conducted in Portugal reported a statistically significant association with increased rates of nasal obstruction and a positive association below the level of statistical significance with a higher risk of obese asthma and increased child BMI.

Calumet Specialty Products Partners, L.P. is a publicly traded U.S.-based company that was incorporated in 1919. It specializes in the manufacture of lubricating oils, solvents, waxes, packaged and synthetic specialty products, fuels and fuel-related products. The company operates 12 production, blending, and packaging facilities across North America. This includes locations in Princeton, Cotton Valley, and Shreveport, Louisiana; Burnham, Illinois; Dickinson, Texas; Muncie, Indiana; Karns City, Pennsylvania; and Great Falls, Montana. Calumet's specialized hydrocarbon products are distributed around the world to approximately 2,700 global customers.

Grease is a solid or semisolid lubricant formed as a dispersion of thickening agents in a liquid lubricant. Grease generally consists of a soap emulsified with mineral or vegetable oil.

An oil is any nonpolar chemical substance that is composed primarily of hydrocarbons and is hydrophobic and lipophilic. Oils are usually flammable and surface active. Most oils are unsaturated lipids that are liquid at room temperature.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Liquid paraffin (drug)</span> Mineral oil used in cosmetics and medicine

Liquid paraffin, also known as paraffinum liquidum, paraffin oil, liquid paraffin oil or Russian mineral oil, is a very highly refined mineral oil used in cosmetics and medicine. Cosmetic or medicinal liquid paraffin should not be confused with the paraffin used as a fuel. The generic sense of paraffin meaning alkane led to regional differences for the meanings of both paraffin and paraffin oil. It is a transparent, colorless, nearly odorless, and oily liquid that is composed of saturated hydrocarbons derived from petroleum.

Crude oil is extracted from the bedrock before being processed in several stages, removing natural contaminants and undesirable hydrocarbons. This separation process produces mineral oil, which can in turn be denoted as paraffinic, naphthenic or aromatic. The differences between these different types of oils are not clear-cut, but mainly depend on the predominant hydrocarbon types in the oil. Paraffinic oil, for example, contains primarily higher alkanes, whereas naphthenic oils have a high share of cyclic alkanes in the mixture.

Petroleum naphtha is an intermediate hydrocarbon liquid stream derived from the refining of crude oil with CAS-no 64742-48-9. It is most usually desulfurized and then catalytically reformed, which rearranges or restructures the hydrocarbon molecules in the naphtha as well as breaking some of the molecules into smaller molecules to produce a high-octane component of gasoline.

References

  1. ↑ Mineral oil (Dictionary.com) Archived 30 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine
  2. ↑ "Opinion of the Scientific Panel on Food Additives, Flavourings, Processing Aids and Materials in Contact with Food (AFC) on a request from the Commission related the use of mineral oils in jute and sisal bags" (PDF). The EFSA Journal. 2004. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 June 2018. Retrieved 27 January 2007.
  3. ↑ "Mechanical properties of materials". Kaye and Laby Tables of Physical and Chemical Constants. National Physical Laboratory. Archived from the original on 11 March 2008. Retrieved 6 March 2008.
  4. ↑ "Definition of MINERAL OIL". merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 10 September 2018.
  5. ↑ "Annex E - API Base Oil Interchangeability Guidelines for Passenger Car Motor Oils and Diesel Engine Oils" (PDF). American Petroleum Institute. 2015.
  6. ↑ Cutler, Adam (8 August 2017). "Is my oil mineral or synthetic?". Learn Oil Analysis. Archived from the original on 15 August 2017. Retrieved 14 August 2017.
  7. ↑ IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans. Chemical Agents and Related Occupations. Lyon (FR): International Agency for Research on Cancer; 2012. (IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, No. 100F.) MINERAL OILS, UNTREATED OR MILDLY TREATED. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK304428/
  8. ↑ International Agency for Research on Cancer (17 June 2011). "Agents Classified by the IARC Monographs, Volumes 1–102" (PDF). Lyon, France: International Agency for Research on Cancer. pp. 3, 19. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 October 2011. Retrieved 11 November 2011.
  9. ↑ "Survey of printing inks and mineral oils". Food Standards Agency. London. 15 December 2011. Archived from the original on 15 May 2012.
  10. ↑ "Oil mist (mineral). Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health Concentrations (IDLH)". cdc.gov. 4 December 2014. Retrieved 12 June 2018.
  11. ↑ "Drugs & Medications".
  12. ↑ Weinstein, M. (2001). "First do no harm: The dangers of mineral oil". Paediatrics & Child Health. 6 (3): 129–131. doi:10.1093/pch/6.3.129. PMC   2804525 . PMID   20084222.
  13. ↑ "Mineral Oil". Drugs & Medications. WebMD . Retrieved 20 April 2019.
  14. ↑ "Mineral Oil rectal enema". Health Library / Drugs, Devices & Supplements. Cleveland Clinic . Retrieved 20 April 2019.
  15. 1 2 WHO Food Additive Monograph 70.39 Archived 6 August 2007 at the Wayback Machine , retrieved 20 Sep 2009
  16. ↑ "Optimizing Natural Fertility" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 November 2013. Retrieved 11 November 2013.
  17. ↑ Voeller, B; Coulson, A. H.; Bernstein, G. S.; Nakamura, R. M. (1989). "Mineral oil lubricants cause rapid deterioration of latex condoms". Contraception. 39 (1): 95–102. doi:10.1016/0010-7824(89)90018-8. PMID   2535978.
  18. ↑ Pasquini, Chris (1998). Guide to Equine Clinics (Volume 1). Sudz Publishing. p. 84. ISBN   978-0-9623114-6-8.
  19. ↑ "Chronic Ear Infections in Canines". whole-dog-journal.com. 12 May 2004.
  20. ↑ DiNardo, J. C. (2005). "Is mineral oil comedogenic?". Journal of Cosmetic Dermatology. 4 (1): 2–3. doi:10.1111/j.1473-2165.2005.00150.x. PMID   17134413. S2CID   27106527.
  21. ↑ Suwarno Darma, I.S.; Darma, I.S. (2008). Dielectric properties of mixtures between mineral oil and natural ester. International Symposium on Electrical Insulating Materials (ISEIM 2008). pp. 514–517. doi:10.1109/ISEIM.2008.4664471. ISBN   978-4-88686-005-7. S2CID   24096191.
  22. ↑ Shkol'nikov, V. M.; L. A. Bronshtein; Yu. N. Shekhter; O. L. Drozdova (1977). "Electrical and viscosity properties of mineral oil components". Chemistry and Technology of Fuels and Oils. 13 (7). Springer New York: 479. doi:10.1007/BF00730107. S2CID   95831496.
  23. ↑ Sayed, Abu (30 September 2013). "Batch and batching of jute". textileapex.blogspot.com. Archived from the original on 20 May 2021. Retrieved 20 May 2021.
  24. ↑ Oommen, T.V. (2002). "Vegetable oils for liquid-filled transformers". IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine. 18 (1): 6–11. doi:10.1109/57.981322.
  25. ↑ "Mineral Oil Liquid Facts and Comparisons". Wolters Kluwer Health – A to Z Drugs Facts. Drugs.com. 3 June 2009. Archived from the original on 1 June 2009. Retrieved 13 July 2009.
  26. ↑ Cadbury Adams USA, LLC (2010). "Swedish Fish Nutrition Facts". Archived from the original on 19 October 2012.
  27. ↑ Tucker, John (c. 2008). "Oiling chips FAQ". Poker Chip Reviews (pokerchipreviews.com). Archived from the original on 13 August 2009. Retrieved 13 July 2009.
  28. ↑ "Candles and incense as potential sources of indoor air pollution". Economic data on candle and incense production and sales (PDF). Market analysis and literature review (Report). United States Environmental Protection Agency. January 2001. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 June 2011. Retrieved 11 October 2010. Gel candles use liquids such as mineral oil, terpene-type chemicals, or modified hydrocarbons as their primary fuel.
  29. ↑ Bach, John (5 May 2007). "Mineral oil submerged computer". Puget Custom Computers (pugetsystems.com) (commercial site). Archived from the original on 7 July 2009. Retrieved 13 July 2009.
  30. ↑ Norton, Patrick; Chang, Roger (9 March 2009). "How to build an oil-cooled 'aquarium' PC". Revision3 (revision3.com). Archived from the original on 15 July 2009. Retrieved 13 July 2009.
  31. ↑ "Information on alkali metals". Stanford Environmental Health & Safety. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University . Retrieved 10 May 2022.
  32. ↑ "MiniBooNE detector". Experiment details for physicists. Fermilab (fnal.gov). MiniBooN Experiment. Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory. Archived from the original on 10 December 2015. Retrieved 7 December 2015.
  33. ↑ "Study material for the examination for Certificate of Fitness for fire producer E-28 / fire performer E-29" (PDF). New York City Fire Department. New York, NY: City of New York. December 2015. Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 September 2016.
  34. ↑ Weinberg, I.; Fridlender, Z.G. (2010). "Exogenous lipoid pneumonia caused by paraffin in an amateur fire breather". Occupational Medicine. 60 (3): 234–235. doi: 10.1093/occmed/kqq020 . PMID   20308260.
  35. ↑ Saraf, Sanjay (2012). "Fire-breathing burn". Indian Dermatology Online Journal. 3 (1): 73–74. doi: 10.4103/2229-5178.93491 . PMC   3481926 . PMID   23130274.
  36. ↑ Material safety data sheet (PDF). menards.com (Report). Galileo Thermometer. 13 November 2002. Archived (PDF) from the original on 16 June 2015. Retrieved 20 February 2017.
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