Building

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Short visual history of architectural styles (from left to right): the Ishtar Gate (Mesopotamian); the Temple of Isis from Philae (Ancient Egyptian); the Maison Carrée (Greco-Roman); the Kandariya Mahadeva Temple (Indian); the Hall of Prayer for Good Harvests of the Temple of Heaven (Chinese); the Basilica of San Vitale (Byzantine); Badshahi Mosque (Islamic); the Durham Cathedral (Romanesque); Sainte-Chapelle (Gothic); the Tempietto (Renaissance); Château de Maisons (Baroque); boiserie from the Hôtel de Varengeville (Rococo); the Petit Trianon (Neoclassical); Grand Central Terminal, Midtown Manhattan, New York City (Beaux-Arts); the Castel Béranger (Art Nouveau); the Théâtre des Champs-Élysées (Art Deco); the Fagus Factory (Modern); and the Neue Staatsgalerie (Postmodern)

A building or edifice is an enclosed structure with a roof and walls, usually standing permanently in one place, [1] such as a house or factory. [1] Buildings come in a variety of sizes, shapes, and functions, and have been adapted throughout history for numerous factors, from building materials available, to weather conditions, land prices, ground conditions, specific uses, prestige, and aesthetic reasons. To better understand the concept, see Nonbuilding structure for contrast.

Contents

Buildings serve several societal needs – occupancy, primarily as shelter from weather, security, living space, privacy, to store belongings, and to comfortably live and work. A building as a shelter represents a physical separation of the human habitat (a place of comfort and safety) from the outside (a place that may be harsh and harmful at times).

Ever since the first cave paintings, buildings have been objects or canvasses of much artistic expression. In recent years, interest in sustainable planning and building practices has become an intentional part of the design process of many new buildings and other structures, usually green buildings.

Definition

Skyscrapers under construction in Kalasatama, Helsinki, Finland (2021) Kalasatama, Helsinki.jpg
Skyscrapers under construction in Kalasatama, Helsinki, Finland (2021)

A building is 'a structure that has a roof and walls and stands more or less permanently in one place'; [1] "there was a three-storey building on the corner"; "it was an imposing edifice". In the broadest interpretation a fence or wall is a building. [2] However, the word structure is used more broadly than building, to include natural and human-made formations [3] and ones that do not have walls; structure is more often used for a fence. Sturgis' Dictionary included that "[building] differs from architecture in excluding all idea of artistic treatment; and it differs from construction in the idea of excluding scientific or highly skilful treatment." [4]

Structural height in technical usage is the height to the highest architectural detail on the building from street level. Spires and masts may or may not be included in this height, depending on how they are classified. Spires and masts used as antennas are not generally included. The distinction between a low-rise and high-rise building is a matter of debate, but generally three stories or less is considered low-rise. [5]

History

There is clear evidence of homebuilding from around 18,000 BC. [6] Buildings became common during the Neolithic period. [7]

Types

A timber-framed house in Marburg, Germany Marburg asv2022-02 img04 Reitgasse.jpg
A timber-framed house in Marburg, Germany
Belle Epoque city-house on Strada Arthur Verona in Bucharest, Romania, currently part of a bookshop 15 Strada Arthur Verona, Bucharest (13).jpg
Belle Époque city-house on Strada Arthur Verona in Bucharest, Romania, currently part of a bookshop
The Mitilineu House, a city-house in Bucharest, dating from 1898 2 Strada Arthur Verona, Bucharest (02).jpg
The Mitilineu House, a city-house in Bucharest, dating from 1898

Residential

Single-family residential buildings are most often called houses or homes . Multi-family residential buildings containing more than one dwelling unit are called duplexes or apartment buildings . Condominiums are apartments that occupants own rather than rent. Houses may be built in pairs (semi-detached) or in terraces, where all but two of the houses have others on either side. Apartments may be built round courtyards or as rectangular blocks surrounded by plots of ground. Houses built as single dwellings may later be divided into apartments or bedsitters, or converted to other uses (e.g., offices or shops). Hotels, especially of the extended-stay variety (apartels), can be classed as residential.

Building types may range from huts to multimillion-dollar high-rise apartment blocks able to house thousands of people. Increasing settlement density in buildings (and smaller distances between buildings) is usually a response to high ground prices resulting from the desire of many people to live close to their places of employment or similar attractors.

Terms for residential buildings reflect such characteristics as function (e.g., holiday cottage (vacation home) or timeshare if occupied seasonally); size (cottage or great house); value (shack or mansion); manner of construction (log home or mobile home); architectural style (castle or Victorian); and proximity to geographical features (earth shelter, stilt house, houseboat, or floating home). For residents in need of special care, or those society considers dangerous enough to deprive of liberty, there are institutions (nursing homes, orphanages, psychiatric hospitals, and prisons) and group housing (barracks and dormitories).

Historically, many people lived in communal buildings called longhouses, smaller dwellings called pit-houses, and houses combined with barns, sometimes called housebarns.

Common building materials include brick, concrete, stone, and combinations thereof. Buildings are defined to be substantial, permanent structures. Such forms as yurts and motorhomes are therefore considered dwellings but not buildings.

Commercial

A commercial building is one in which at least one business is based and people do not live. Examples include stores, restaurant, and hotels.[ citation needed ]

Industrial

Industrial buildings are those in which heavy industry is done, such as manufacturing. These edifices include warehouses and factories.[ citation needed ]

Agricultural

Agricultural buildings are the outbuildings, such as barns located on farms.[ citation needed ]

Mixed use

Some buildings incorporate several or multiple different uses, most commonly commercial and residential.[ citation needed ]

Complex

Aluminum panel framed steel building in Korea Competitiveness - Korea.jpg
Aluminum panel framed steel building in Korea

Sometimes a group of inter-related (and possibly inter-connected) builds are referred to as a complex – for example a housing complex, [8] educational complex, [9] hospital complex, etc.

Creation

The practice of designing, constructing, and operating buildings is most usually a collective effort of different groups of professionals and trades. Depending on the size, complexity, and purpose of a particular building project, the project team may include:

Regardless of their size or intended use, all buildings in the US must comply with zoning ordinances, building codes and other regulations such as fire codes, life safety codes and related standards.

Vehicles—such as trailers, caravans, ships and passenger aircraft—are treated as "buildings" for life safety purposes.

Ownership and funding

Environmental impacts

This section is an excerpt from Green building § Reducing environmental impact.[ edit ]

Buildings represent a large part of energy, electricity, water and materials consumption. As of 2020, they account for 37% of global energy use and energy-related CO2 emissions, which the United Nations estimate contributed to 33% of overall worldwide emissions. [10] [11] Including the manufacturing of building materials, the global CO2 emissions were 39%. [12] If new technologies in construction are not adopted during this time of rapid growth, emissions could double by 2050, according to the United Nations Environment Program.

Glass buildings, especially all-glass skyscrapers, contribute significantly to climate change due to their energy inefficiency. While these structures are visually appealing and allow abundant natural light, they also trap heat, necessitating increased use of air conditioning systems, which contribute to higher carbon emissions. Experts advocate for design modifications and potential restrictions on all-glass edifices to mitigate their detrimental environmental impact. [13] [14]

Buildings account for a large amount of land. According to the National Resources Inventory, approximately 107 million acres (430,000 km2) of land in the United States are developed. The International Energy Agency released a publication that estimated that existing buildings are responsible for more than 40% of the world's total primary energy consumption and for 24% of global carbon dioxide emissions. [15] [16]

According to Global status report from the year 2016, buildings consume more than 30% of all produced energy. The report states that "Under a below 2°C trajectory, effective action to improve building energy efficiency could limit building final energy demand to just above current levels, meaning that the average energy intensity of the global building stock would decrease by more than 80% by 2050". [17]
Hanging gardens of One Central Park, Sydney Hanging gardens of One Central Park, Sydney.jpg
Hanging gardens of One Central Park, Sydney
Green building practices aim to reduce the environmental impact of building as the building sector has the greatest potential to deliver significant cuts in emissions at little or no cost. [18] General guidelines can be summarized as follows: Every building should be as small as possible. Avoid contributing to sprawl, even if the most energy-efficient, environmentally sound methods are used in design and construction. Bioclimatic design principles are able to reduce energy expenditure and by extension, carbon emissions. Bioclimatic design is a method of building design that takes local climate into account to create comfortable conditions within the structure. [19] [20] This could be as simple as constructing a different shape for the building envelope or facing the building towards the south to maximize solar exposure for energy or lighting purposes. Given the limitations of city planned construction, bioclimatic principles may be employed on a lesser scale, however it is still an effective passive method to reduce environmental impact.

Building services

Physical plant

The BB&T Building in Macon, Georgia is constructed of aluminum. The BB&T Building in Macon, Georgia.jpg
The BB&T Building in Macon, Georgia is constructed of aluminum.

Any building requires a certain general amount of internal infrastructure to function, which includes such elements like heating / cooling, power and telecommunications, water and wastewater etc. Especially in commercial buildings (such as offices or factories), these can be extremely intricate systems taking up large amounts of space (sometimes located in separate areas or double floors / false ceilings) and constitute a big part of the regular maintenance required.

Conveying systems

Systems for transport of people within buildings:

Systems for transport of people between interconnected buildings:

Building damage

A building in Massueville (Quebec, Canada) engulfed by fire Fire inside an abandoned convent in Massueville, Quebec, Canada.jpg
A building in Massueville (Quebec, Canada) engulfed by fire

Buildings may be damaged during construction or during maintenance. They may be damaged by accidents [21] involving storms, explosions, subsidence caused by mining, [22] water withdrawal [23] or poor foundations [24] and landslides. [25] Buildings may suffer fire damage [26] [27] and flooding. [28] They may become dilapidated through lack of proper maintenance, or alteration work improperly carried out.

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Passive solar building design</span> Architectural engineering that uses the Suns heat without electric or mechanical systems

In passive solar building design, windows, walls, and floors are made to collect, store, reflect, and distribute solar energy, in the form of heat in the winter and reject solar heat in the summer. This is called passive solar design because, unlike active solar heating systems, it does not involve the use of mechanical and electrical devices.

Energy-efficient landscaping is a type of landscaping designed for the purpose of conserving energy. There is a distinction between the embedded energy of materials and constructing the landscape, and the energy consumed by the maintenance and operations of a landscape.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Subsidence</span> Downward vertical movement of the Earths surface

Subsidence is a general term for downward vertical movement of the Earth's surface, which can be caused by both natural processes and human activities. Subsidence involves little or no horizontal movement, which distinguishes it from slope movement.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Environmental impact of electricity generation</span>

Electric power systems consist of generation plants of different energy sources, transmission networks, and distribution lines. Each of these components can have environmental impacts at multiple stages of their development and use including in their construction, during the generation of electricity, and in their decommissioning and disposal. These impacts can be split into operational impacts and construction impacts. All forms of electricity generation have some form of environmental impact, but coal-fired power is the dirtiest. This page is organized by energy source and includes impacts such as water usage, emissions, local pollution, and wildlife displacement.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Green building</span> Structures and processes of building structures that are more environmentally responsible

Green building refers to both a structure and the application of processes that are environmentally responsible and resource-efficient throughout a building's life-cycle: from planning to design, construction, operation, maintenance, renovation, and demolition. This requires close cooperation of the contractor, the architects, the engineers, and the client at all project stages. The Green Building practice expands and complements the classical building design concerns of economy, utility, durability, and comfort. Green building also refers to saving resources to the maximum extent, including energy saving, land saving, water saving, material saving, etc., during the whole life cycle of the building, protecting the environment and reducing pollution, providing people with healthy, comfortable and efficient use of space, and being in harmony with nature. Buildings that live in harmony; green building technology focuses on low consumption, high efficiency, economy, environmental protection, integration and optimization.’

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Low-energy house</span> House designed for reduced energy use

A low-energy house is characterized by an energy-efficient design and technical features which enable it to provide high living standards and comfort with low energy consumption and carbon emissions. Traditional heating and active cooling systems are absent, or their use is secondary. Low-energy buildings may be viewed as examples of sustainable architecture. Low-energy houses often have active and passive solar building design and components, which reduce the house's energy consumption and minimally impact the resident's lifestyle. Throughout the world, companies and non-profit organizations provide guidelines and issue certifications to guarantee the energy performance of buildings and their processes and materials. Certifications include passive house, BBC—Bâtiment Basse Consommation—Effinergie (France), zero-carbon house (UK), and Minergie (Switzerland).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Passive house</span> Type of house

Passive house is a voluntary standard for energy efficiency in a building that reduces the building's carbon footprint. Conforming to these standards results in ultra-low energy buildings that require less energy for space heating or cooling. A similar standard, MINERGIE-P, is used in Switzerland. Standards are available for residential properties, and several office buildings, schools, kindergartens and a supermarket have also been constructed to the standard. Energy efficiency is not an attachment or supplement to architectural design, but a design process that integrates with architectural design. Although it is generally applied to new buildings, it has also been used for renovations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Renovation</span> Improving a broken, damaged or outdated structure

Renovation is the process of improving broken, damaged, or outdated structures. Renovations are typically done on either commercial or residential buildings. Additionally, renovation can refer to making something new, or bringing something back to life and can apply in social contexts. For example, a community can be renovated if it is strengthened and revived. It can also be restoring something to a former better state. Renovation is very common in some places. For example, there are more than twenty thousand home improvement projects every year in Hong Kong, affecting more than a million residents.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sustainable architecture</span> Architecture designed to minimize environmental impact

Sustainable architecture is architecture that seeks to minimize the negative environmental impact of buildings through improved efficiency and moderation in the use of materials, energy, development space and the ecosystem at large. Sustainable architecture uses a conscious approach to energy and ecological conservation in the design of the built environment.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Building science</span>

Building Science is the science and technology-driven collection of knowledge to provide better indoor environmental quality (IEQ), energy-efficient built environments, and occupant comfort and satisfaction. Building physics, architectural science, and applied physics are terms used for the knowledge domain that overlaps with building science. In building science, the methods used in natural and hard sciences are widely applied, which may include controlled and quasi-experiments, randomized control, physical measurements, remote sensing, and simulations. On the other hand, methods from social and soft sciences, such as case study, interviews & focus group, observational method, surveys, and experience sampling, are also widely used in building science to understand occupant satisfaction, comfort, and experiences by acquiring qualitative data. One of the recent trends in building science is a combination of the two different methods. For instance, it is widely known that occupants' thermal sensation and comfort may vary depending on their sex, age, emotion, experiences, etc. even in the same indoor environment. Despite the advancement in data extraction and collection technology in building science, objective measurements alone can hardly represent occupants' state of mind such as comfort and preference. Therefore, researchers are trying to measure both physical contexts and understand human responses to figure out complex interrelationships.

A building envelope or building enclosure is the physical separator between the conditioned and unconditioned environment of a building, including the resistance to air, water, heat, light, and noise transfer.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Zero-energy building</span> Energy efficiency standard for buildings

A Zero-Energy Building (ZEB), also known as a Net Zero-Energy (NZE) building, is a building with net zero energy consumption, meaning the total amount of energy used by the building on an annual basis is equal to the amount of renewable energy created on the site or in other definitions by renewable energy sources offsite, using technology such as heat pumps, high efficiency windows and insulation, and solar panels.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Passive cooling</span> Building design approach

Passive cooling is a building design approach that focuses on heat gain control and heat dissipation in a building in order to improve the indoor thermal comfort with low or no energy consumption. This approach works either by preventing heat from entering the interior or by removing heat from the building.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Building insulation</span> Material to reduce heat transfer in structures

Building insulation is material used in a building to reduce the flow of thermal energy. While the majority of insulation in buildings is for thermal purposes, the term also applies to acoustic insulation, fire insulation, and impact insulation. Often an insulation material will be chosen for its ability to perform several of these functions at once.

Bionic architecture is a contemporary movement that studies the physiological, behavioural, and structural adaptions of biological organisms as a source of inspiration for designing and constructing expressive buildings. These structures are designed to be self-sufficient, being able to structurally modify themselves in response to the fluctuating internal and external forces such as changes in weather and temperature.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Deformation monitoring</span>

Deformation monitoring is the systematic measurement and tracking of the alteration in the shape or dimensions of an object as a result of stresses induced by applied loads. Deformation monitoring is a major component of logging measured values that may be used for further computation, deformation analysis, predictive maintenance, and alarming.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ecological design</span> Design approach sensitive to environmental impacts

Ecological design or ecodesign is an approach to designing products and services that gives special consideration to the environmental impacts of a product over its entire lifecycle. Sim Van der Ryn and Stuart Cowan define it as "any form of design that minimizes environmentally destructive impacts by integrating itself with living processes." Ecological design can also be defined as the process of integrating environmental considerations into design and development with the aim of reducing environmental impacts of products through their life cycle.

The environmental impact of concrete, its manufacture, and its applications, are complex, driven in part by direct impacts of construction and infrastructure, as well as by CO2 emissions; between 4-8% of total global CO2 emissions come from concrete. Many depend on circumstances. A major component is cement, which has its own environmental and social impacts and contributes largely to those of concrete.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sustainable refurbishment</span>

Sustainable refurbishment describes working on existing buildings to improve their environmental performance using sustainable methods and materials. A refurbishment or retrofit is defined as: "any work to a building over and above maintenance to change its capacity, function or performance' in other words, any intervention to adjust, reuse, or upgrade a building to suit new conditions or requirements". Refurbishment can be done to a part of a building, an entire building, or a campus. Sustainable refurbishment takes this a step further to modify the existing building to perform better in terms of its environmental impact and its occupants' environment.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Passive daytime radiative cooling</span> Management strategy for global warming

Passive daytime radiative cooling (PDRC) is the use of unpowered, reflective/thermally-emissive surfaces to lower the temperature of a building or other object.

References

  1. 1 2 3 Max J. Egenhofer (2002). Geographic Information Science: Second International Conference, GIScience 2002, Boulder, CO, USA, September 25–28, 2002. Proceedings. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 110. ISBN   978-3-540-44253-0.
  2. ↑ Building def. 2. Whitney, William Dwight, and Benjamin E. Smith. The Century dictionary and cyclopedia. vol. 1. New York: Century Co., 1901. 712. Print.
  3. ↑ Structure. def. 2. Merriam-Webster's dictionary of synonyms: a dictionary of discriminated synonyms with antonyms and analogous and contrasted words.. Springfield, Mass: Merriam-Webster, 1984. 787. Print.
  4. ↑ Building. def 1. Sturgis, Russell. A dictionary of architecture and building: biographical, historical, and descriptive. vol. 1. New York: The Macmillan Co.; 1901. 2236. Print.
  5. ↑ Paul Francis Wendt and Alan Robert Cerf (1979), Real estate investment analysis and taxation, McGraw-Hill, p. 210
  6. ↑ Rob Dunn (Aug 23, 2014). "Meet the lodgers: Wildlife in the great indoors". New Scientist: 34–37. Archived from the original on 2014-11-29.
  7. ↑ Pace, Anthony (2004). "Tarxien". In Daniel Cilia (ed.). Malta before History – The World's Oldest Free Standing Stone Architecture. Miranda Publishers. ISBN   978-9990985085.
  8. ↑ "plans to convert housing complex". Archived from the original on 2017-01-10. Retrieved 2017-02-23.
  9. ↑ "isye building complex". Archived from the original on 2017-01-03.
  10. ↑ "2020 Global Status Report for Buildings and Construction: Towards a Zero-emissions, Efficient and Resilient Buildings and Construction Sector - Executive Summary". 2020.
  11. ↑ Nord, Natasa (2017), "Building Energy Efficiency in Cold Climates", Encyclopedia of Sustainable Technologies, Elsevier, pp. 149–157, doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-409548-9.10190-3, ISBN   978-0-12-804792-7 , retrieved 2022-04-04
  12. ↑ Global Alliance for Buildings and Construction; International Energy Agency; United Nations Environment Programme (2019). "2019 Global Status Report for Buildings and Construction Towards a zero-emissions, efficient, and resilient buildings and construction sector" (PDF). UN environment programme Document Repository. United Nations Environment Programme. Archived (PDF) from the original on 21 October 2020. Retrieved 20 October 2020.
  13. ↑ Tapper, James (Jul 28, 2019). "Experts call for ban on glass skyscrapers to save energy in climate crisis". The Guardian. Archived from the original on July 28, 2019. Retrieved Sep 7, 2023.
  14. ↑ "Wasteful steel-and-glass buildings fuel global climate injustice, says climate expert". phys.org. Oct 19, 2019. Archived from the original on October 19, 2021. Retrieved Sep 7, 2021.
  15. ↑ "Buildings – Analysis".
  16. ↑ Goodhew S 2016 Sustainable Construction Processes A Resource Text. John Wiley & Son
  17. ↑ Towards zero-emission efficient and resilient buildings GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2016 (PDF). Global Alliance for Buildings and construction. 2016. p. 8. Retrieved 1 April 2022.
  18. ↑ Sun, Yefei; Yan, Cuishunping; Xing, Haoyun (2024). "Can green buildings reduce carbon dioxide emissions?". Energy . 312: 133613. doi:10.1016/j.energy.2024.133613.
  19. ↑ Watson, Donald (2013), Loftness, Vivian; Haase, Dagmar (eds.), "Bioclimatic Designbioclimaticdesign", Sustainable Built Environments, New York, NY: Springer, pp. 1–30, doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-5828-9_225, ISBN   978-1-4614-5828-9 , retrieved 2023-07-12
  20. ↑ "Bioclimatic architecture, buildings that respect the environment". Iberdrola. Retrieved 2022-04-03.
  21. ↑ "Building Damage". Pb.unimelb.edu.au. Archived from the original on 2014-02-14. Retrieved 2014-08-22.
  22. ↑ Herrera, G.; Álvarez Fernández, M.I.; Tomás, R.; González-Nicieza, C.; López-Sánchez, J.M.; Álvarez Vigil, A.E. (September 2012). "Forensic analysis of buildings affected by mining subsidence based on Differential Interferometry (Part III)". Engineering Failure Analysis. 24: 67–76. doi:10.1016/j.engfailanal.2012.03.003. hdl: 20.500.12468/749 .
  23. ↑ Bru, G.; Herrera, G.; Tomás, R.; Duro, J.; Vega, R. De la; Mulas, J. (2013-02-01). "Control of deformation of buildings affected by subsidence using persistent scatterer interferometry". Structure and Infrastructure Engineering. 9 (2): 188–200. doi:10.1080/15732479.2010.519710. ISSN   1573-2479. S2CID   110521863.
  24. ↑ Díaz, E.; Robles, P.; Tomás, R. (October 2018). "Multitechnical approach for damage assessment and reinforcement of buildings located on subsiding areas: Study case of a 7-story RC building in Murcia (SE Spain)". Engineering Structures. 173: 744–757. Bibcode:2018EngSt.173..744D. doi:10.1016/j.engstruct.2018.07.031. hdl: 10045/77547 .
  25. ↑ Soldato, Matteo Del; Bianchini, Silvia; Calcaterra, Domenico; Vita, Pantaleone De; Martire, Diego Di; Tomás, Roberto; Casagli, Nicola (2017-07-12). "A new approach for landslide-induced damage assessment" (PDF). Geomatics, Natural Hazards and Risk. 8 (2): 1524–1537. Bibcode:2017GNHR....8.1524D. doi: 10.1080/19475705.2017.1347896 . ISSN   1947-5705. S2CID   73697187.
  26. ↑ Brotóns, V.; Tomás, R.; Ivorra, S.; Alarcón, J. C. (2013-12-17). "Temperature influence on the physical and mechanical properties of a porous rock: San Julian's calcarenite". Engineering Geology. 167 (Supplement C): 117–127. Bibcode:2013EngGe.167..117B. doi:10.1016/j.enggeo.2013.10.012.
  27. ↑ Tomás, R.; Cano, M.; Pulgarín, L.F.; Brotóns, V.; Benavente, D.; Miranda, T.; Vasconcelos, G. (November 2021). "Thermal effect of high temperatures on the physical and mechanical properties of a granite used in UNESCO World Heritage sites in north Portugal". Journal of Building Engineering. 43: 102823. doi:10.1016/j.jobe.2021.102823. hdl: 10045/115630 .
  28. ↑ Marvi, Morteza T. (2020-07-01). "A review of flood damage analysis for a building structure and contents". Natural Hazards. 102 (3): 967–995. Bibcode:2020NatHa.102..967M. doi:10.1007/s11069-020-03941-w. ISSN   1573-0840.
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