Fox

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Foxes
Vulpes vulpes ssp fulvus.jpg
A red fox in Algonquin Provincial Park, Ontario
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Carnivora
Family: Canidae
Subfamily: Caninae
Groups included
Cladistically included but traditionally excluded taxa

All other species in Canini

Foxes are small-to-medium-sized omnivorous mammals belonging to several genera of the family Canidae. They have a flattened skull; upright, triangular ears; a pointed, slightly upturned snout; and a long, bushy tail ("brush").

Contents

Twelve species belong to the monophyletic "true fox" group of genus Vulpes . Another 25 current or extinct species are sometimes called foxes – they are part of the paraphyletic group of the South American foxes or an outlying group, which consists of the bat-eared fox, gray fox, and island fox. [1]

Foxes live on every continent except Antarctica. The most common and widespread species of fox is the red fox (Vulpes vulpes) with about 47 recognized subspecies. [2] The global distribution of foxes, together with their widespread reputation for cunning, has contributed to their prominence in popular culture and folklore in many societies around the world. The hunting of foxes with packs of hounds, long an established pursuit in Europe, especially in the British Isles, was exported by European settlers to various parts of the New World.

Etymology

The word fox comes from Old English and derives from Proto-Germanic *fuhsaz. [nb 1] This in turn derives from Proto-Indo-European *puḱ- "thick-haired, tail." [nb 2] Male foxes are known as dogs, tods, or reynards ; females as vixens; and young as cubs, pups, or kits, though the last term is not to be confused with the kit fox, a distinct species. "Vixen" is one of very few modern English words that retain the Middle English southern dialectal "v" pronunciation instead of "f"; i.e., northern English "fox" versus southern English "vox". [3] A group of foxes is referred to as a skulk, leash, or earth. [4] [5]

Phylogenetic relationships

Comparative illustration of skulls of a true fox (left) and gray fox (right), with differing temporal ridges and subangular lobes indicated Vulpes vulpes & Urocyon cinereoargenteus skulls & mandibles.jpg
Comparative illustration of skulls of a true fox (left) and gray fox (right), with differing temporal ridges and subangular lobes indicated

Within the Canidae, the results of DNA analysis shows several phylogenetic divisions:

Biology

Fox skeleton FoxSkelLyd1.png
Fox skeleton

General morphology

Foxes are generally smaller than some other members of the family Canidae such as wolves and jackals, while they may be larger than some within the family, such as raccoon dogs. In the largest species, the red fox, males weigh between 4.1 and 8.7 kg (9.0 and 19.2 lb), [7] while the smallest species, the fennec fox, weighs just 0.7 to 1.6 kg (1+1⁄2 to 3+1⁄2 lb). [8]

Fox features typically include a triangular face, pointed ears, an elongated rostrum, and a bushy tail. They are digitigrade (meaning they walk on their toes). Unlike most members of the family Canidae, foxes have partially retractable claws. [9] Fox vibrissae, or whiskers, are black. The whiskers on the muzzle, known as mystacial vibrissae, average 100–110 millimetres (3+7⁄8–4+3⁄8 inches) long, while the whiskers everywhere else on the head average to be shorter in length. Whiskers (carpal vibrissae) are also on the forelimbs and average 40 mm (1+5⁄8 in) long, pointing downward and backward. [2] Other physical characteristics vary according to habitat and adaptive significance.

Pelage

Fox species differ in fur color, length, and density. Coat colors range from pearly white to black-and-white to black flecked with white or grey on the underside. Fennec foxes (and other species of fox adapted to life in the desert, such as kit foxes), for example, have large ears and short fur to aid in keeping the body cool. [2] [9] Arctic foxes, on the other hand, have tiny ears and short limbs as well as thick, insulating fur, which aid in keeping the body warm. [10] Red foxes, by contrast, have a typical auburn pelt, the tail normally ending with a white marking. [11]

A fox's coat color and texture may vary due to the change in seasons; fox pelts are richer and denser in the colder months and lighter in the warmer months. To get rid of the dense winter coat, foxes moult once a year around April; the process begins from the feet, up the legs, and then along the back. [9] Coat color may also change as the individual ages. [2]

Dentition

A fox's dentition, like all other canids, is I 3/3, C 1/1, PM 4/4, M 3/2 = 42. (Bat-eared foxes have six extra molars, totalling in 48 teeth.) Foxes have pronounced carnassial pairs, which is characteristic of a carnivore. These pairs consist of the upper premolar and the lower first molar, and work together to shear tough material like flesh. Foxes' canines are pronounced, also characteristic of a carnivore, and are excellent in gripping prey. [12]

Behaviour

Arctic fox curled up in snow Alopex lagopus coiled up in snow.jpg
Arctic fox curled up in snow
Two young foxes play in the snow in southern Sweden. Rodrav - (Vulpes vulpes) - Varldens ande - Ystad-2023.jpg
Two young foxes play in the snow in southern Sweden.

In the wild, the typical lifespan of a fox is one to three years, although individuals may live up to ten years. Unlike many canids, foxes are not always pack animals. Typically, they live in small family groups, but some (such as Arctic foxes) are known to be solitary. [2] [9]

Foxes are omnivores. [13] [14] Their diet is made up primarily of invertebrates such as insects and small vertebrates such as reptiles and birds. They may also eat eggs and vegetation. Many species are generalist predators, but some (such as the crab-eating fox) have more specialized diets. Most species of fox consume around 1 kg (2.2 lb) of food every day. Foxes cache excess food, burying it for later consumption, usually under leaves, snow, or soil. [9] [15] While hunting, foxes tend to use a particular pouncing technique, such that they crouch down to camouflage themselves in the terrain and then use their hind legs to leap up with great force and land on top of their chosen prey. [2] Using their pronounced canine teeth, they can then grip the prey's neck and shake it until it is dead or can be readily disemboweled. [2]

The gray fox is one of only two canine species known to regularly climb trees; the other is the raccoon dog. [16]

Sexual characteristics

Mating white-footed foxes Desert foxes in the throes of passion (50638266987).jpg
Mating white-footed foxes

The male fox's scrotum is held up close to the body with the testes inside even after they descend. Like other canines, the male fox has a baculum, or penile bone. [2] [17] [18] The testes of red foxes are smaller than those of Arctic foxes. [19] Sperm formation in red foxes begins in August–September, with the testicles attaining their greatest weight in December–February. [20]

Vixens are in heat for one to six days, making their reproductive cycle twelve months long. As with other canines, the ova are shed during estrus without the need for the stimulation of copulating. Once the egg is fertilized, the vixen enters a period of gestation that can last from 52 to 53 days. Foxes tend to have an average litter size of four to five with an 80 percent success rate in becoming pregnant. [2] [21] Litter sizes can vary greatly according to species and environment –the Arctic fox, for example, can have up to eleven kits. [22]

The vixen usually has six or eight mammae. [23] Each teat has 8 to 20 lactiferous ducts, which connect the mammary gland to the nipple, allowing for milk to be carried to the nipple.[ citation needed ]

Vocalization

The fox's vocal repertoire is vast, and includes:

Whine
Made shortly after birth. Occurs at a high rate when kits are hungry and when their body temperatures are low. Whining stimulates the mother to care for her young; it also has been known to stimulate the male fox into caring for his mate and kits.
Yelp
Made about 19 days later. The kits' whining turns into infantile barks, yelps, which occur heavily during play.
Explosive call
At the age of about one month, the kits can emit an explosive call which is intended to be threatening to intruders or other cubs; a high-pitched howl.
Combative call
In adults, the explosive call becomes an open-mouthed combative call during any conflict; a sharper bark.
Growl
An adult fox's indication to their kits to feed or head to the adult's location.
Bark
Adult foxes warn against intruders and in defense by barking. [2] [24]

In the case of domesticated foxes, the whining seems to remain in adult individuals as a sign of excitement and submission in the presence of their owners. [2]

Classification

Canids commonly known as foxes include the following genera and species: [2]

GenusSpeciesPicture
Canis Ethiopian wolf, sometimes called the Simien fox or Simien jackal
Ethiopian wolf, native to the Ethiopian highlands Canis simensis .jpg
Ethiopian wolf, native to the Ethiopian highlands
Cerdocyon Crab-eating fox
Crab-eating fox, a South American species Maikong in Villamaria, Caldas, Colombia 3.jpg
Crab-eating fox, a South American species
† Dusicyon Extinct genus, including the Falkland Islands wolf, sometimes known as the Falklands Islands fox
Falkland Islands wolf Illustration by John Gerrard Keulemans (1842-1912) FalklandIslandFox2.jpg
Falkland Islands wolf Illustration by John Gerrard Keulemans (1842–1912)
Lycalopex
A pampas fox in Departamento de Flores, Uruguay Aguarachay, Departamento de Flores, Uruguay 5.jpg
A pampas fox in Departamento de Flores, Uruguay
Otocyon Bat-eared fox
Bat-eared fox in Kenya Bat eared fox Kenya crop.jpg
Bat-eared fox in Kenya
Urocyon
Gray fox (Urocyon cinereoargenteus), in Midtown, Palo Alto, California Gray fox (22893897420).jpg
Gray fox (Urocyon cinereoargenteus), in Midtown, Palo Alto, California
Vulpes
The fennec fox is the smallest species of fox Fennec Fox.jpg
The fennec fox is the smallest species of fox
Red fox Rav vid Revhusen i Ystad - Juli 2012..jpg
Red fox

Conservation

The island fox is a near-threatened species. Urocyon littoralis pair.jpg
The island fox is a near-threatened species.

Several fox species are endangered in their native environments. Pressures placed on foxes include habitat loss and being hunted for pelts, other trade, or control. [25] Due in part to their opportunistic hunting style and industriousness, foxes are commonly resented as nuisance animals. [26] Contrastingly, foxes, while often considered pests themselves, have been successfully employed to control pests on fruit farms while leaving the fruit intact. [27]

Urocyon littoralis

The island fox, though considered a near-threatened species throughout the world, is becoming increasingly endangered in its endemic environment of the California Channel Islands. [28] A population on an island is smaller than those on the mainland because of limited resources like space, food and shelter. [29] Island populations are therefore highly susceptible to external threats ranging from introduced predatory species and humans to extreme weather. [29]

On the California Channel Islands, it was found that the population of the island fox was so low due to an outbreak of canine distemper virus from 1999 to 2000 [30] as well as predation by non-native golden eagles. [31] Since 1993, the eagles have caused the population to decline by as much as 95%. [30] Because of the low number of foxes, the population went through an Allee effect (an effect in which, at low enough densities, an individual's fitness decreases). [28] Conservationists had to take healthy breeding pairs out of the wild population to breed them in captivity until they had enough foxes to release back into the wild. [30] Nonnative grazers were also removed so that native plants would be able to grow back to their natural height, thereby providing adequate cover and protection for the foxes against golden eagles. [31]

Pseudalopex fulvipes

Darwin's fox was considered critically endangered because of their small known population of 250 mature individuals as well as their restricted distribution. [32] However, the IUCN have since downgraded the conservation status from crictically endangered in their 2004 and 2008 assessments to endangered in the 2016 assessment, following findings of a wider distribution than previously reported. [33] On the Chilean mainland, the population is limited to Nahuelbuta National Park and the surrounding Valdivian rainforest. [32] Similarly on Chiloé Island, their population is limited to the forests that extend from the southernmost to the northwesternmost part of the island. [32] Though the Nahuelbuta National Park is protected, 90% of the species live on Chiloé Island. [34]

A major issue the species faces is their dwindling, limited habitat due to the cutting and burning of the unprotected forests. [32] Because of deforestation, the Darwin's fox habitat is shrinking, allowing for their competitor's (chilla fox) preferred habitat of open space, to increase; the Darwin's fox, subsequently, is being outcompeted. [35] Another problem they face is their inability to fight off diseases transmitted by the increasing number of pet dogs. [32] To conserve these animals, researchers suggest the need for the forests that link the Nahuelbuta National Park to the coast of Chile and in turn Chiloé Island and its forests, to be protected. [35] They also suggest that other forests around Chile be examined to determine whether Darwin's foxes have previously existed there or can live there in the future, should the need to reintroduce the species to those areas arise. [35] And finally, the researchers advise for the creation of a captive breeding program, in Chile, because of the limited number of mature individuals in the wild. [35]

Relationships with humans

A red fox on the porch of a house Sunny Fox.jpg
A red fox on the porch of a house
Dead foxes in Carbunup Foxes are not welcome in Carbunup.jpg
Dead foxes in Carbunup

Foxes are often considered pests or nuisance creatures for their opportunistic attacks on poultry and other small livestock. Fox attacks on humans are not common. [36] Many foxes adapt well to human environments, with several species classified as "resident urban carnivores" for their ability to sustain populations entirely within urban boundaries. [37] Foxes in urban areas can live longer and can have smaller litter sizes than foxes in non-urban areas. [37] Urban foxes are ubiquitous in Europe, where they show altered behaviors compared to non-urban foxes, including increased population density, smaller territory, and pack foraging. [38] Foxes have been introduced in numerous locations, with varying effects on indigenous flora and fauna. [39]

In some countries, foxes are major predators of rabbits and hens. Population oscillations of these two species were the first nonlinear oscillation studied and led to the derivation of the Lotka–Volterra equation. [40] [41]

As food

Fox meat is edible, though it is not considered a common cuisine in any country. [42]

Hunting

Fox hunting originated in the United Kingdom in the 16th century. Hunting with dogs is now banned in the United Kingdom, [43] [44] [45] [46] though hunting without dogs is still permitted. Red foxes were introduced into Australia in the early 19th century for sport, and have since become widespread through much of the country. They have caused population decline among many native species and prey on livestock, especially new lambs. [47] Fox hunting is practiced as recreation in several other countries including Canada, France, Ireland, Italy, Russia, United States and Australia.

Domestication

A tame fox in Talysarn, Wales A tame fox cub at home with Mr and Mrs Gordon Jones, Talysarn (4478261667).jpg
A tame fox in Talysarn, Wales

There are many records of domesticated red foxes and others, but rarely of sustained domestication. A recent and notable exception is the Russian silver fox, [48] which resulted in visible and behavioral changes, and is a case study of an animal population modeling according to human domestication needs. The current group of domesticated silver foxes are the result of nearly fifty years of experiments in the Soviet Union and Russia to de novo domesticate the silver morph of the red fox. This selective breeding resulted in physical and behavioral traits appearing that are frequently seen in domestic cats, dogs, and other animals, such as pigmentation changes, floppy ears, and curly tails. [49] Notably, the new foxes became more tame, allowing themselves to be petted, whimpering to get attention and sniffing and licking their caretakers. [50]

Urban settings

Foxes are among the comparatively few mammals which have been able to adapt themselves to a certain degree to living in urban (mostly suburban) human environments. Their omnivorous diet allows them to survive on discarded food waste, and their skittish and often nocturnal nature means that they are often able to avoid detection, despite their larger size.

Urban foxes have been identified as threats to cats and small dogs, and for this reason there is often pressure to exclude them from these environments. [51]

The San Joaquin kit fox is a highly endangered species that has, ironically, become adapted to urban living in the San Joaquin Valley and Salinas Valley of southern California. Its diet includes mice, ground squirrels, rabbits, hares, bird eggs, and insects, and it has claimed habitats in open areas, golf courses, drainage basins, and school grounds. [51]

Though rare, bites by foxes have been reported; in 2018, a woman in Clapham, London was bitten on the arm by a fox after she had left the door to her flat open. [52]

Plate in the shape of two peaches depicting two foxes, Tang dynasty Gilt silver plate in shape of two peaches.jpg
Plate in the shape of two peaches depicting two foxes, Tang dynasty

The fox appears in many cultures, usually in folklore. There are slight variations in their depictions. In European, Persian, East Asian, and Native American folklore, foxes are symbols of cunning and trickery—a reputation derived especially from their reputed ability to evade hunters. This is usually represented as a character possessing these traits. These traits are used on a wide variety of characters, either making them a nuisance to the story, a misunderstood hero, or a devious villain.

In East Asian folklore, foxes are depicted as familiar spirits possessing magic powers. Similar to in the folklore of other regions, foxes are portrayed as mischievous, usually tricking other people, with the ability to disguise as an attractive female human. Others depict them as mystical, sacred creatures who can bring wonder or ruin. [53] Nine-tailed foxes appear in Chinese folklore, literature, and mythology, in which, depending on the tale, they can be a good or a bad omen. [54] The motif was eventually introduced from Chinese to Japanese and Korean cultures. [55]

The constellation Vulpecula represents a fox.

Notes

  1. ↑ Cf. West Frisian foks, Dutch vos, and German Fuchs.
  2. ↑ Cf. Hindi pū̃ch 'tail', Tocharian B päkā 'tail; chowrie', and Lithuanian paustìs 'fur'. The bushy tail forms the basis for the fox's Welsh name, llwynog 'bushy', from llwyn 'bush'. Likewise, Portuguese: raposa from rabo 'tail', Lithuanian uodẽgis from uodegà 'tail', and Ojibwa waagosh from waa, which refers to the up-and-down "bounce" or flickering of an animal or its tail.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Canidae</span> Family of mammals

Canidae is a biological family of dog-like carnivorans, colloquially referred to as dogs, and constitutes a clade. A member of this family is also called a canid. The family includes three subfamilies: the Caninae, and the extinct Borophaginae and Hesperocyoninae. The Caninae are known as canines, and include domestic dogs, wolves, coyotes, foxes, jackals and other species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dhole</span> Species of mammal

The dhole is a canid native to South, East and Southeast Asia. It is anatomically distinguished from members of the genus Canis in several aspects: its skull is convex rather than concave in profile, it lacks a third lower molar and the upper molars possess only a single cusp as opposed to between two and four. During the Pleistocene, the dhole ranged throughout Asia, with its range also extending into Europe but became restricted to its historical range 12,000–18,000 years ago. It is now extinct in Central Asia, parts of Southeast Asia, and possibly the Korean peninsula and Russia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Jackal</span> Several species of canines

Jackals are canids native to Africa and Eurasia. While the word "jackal" has historically been used for many canines of the subtribe canina, in modern use it most commonly refers to three species: the closely related black-backed jackal and side-striped jackal of Central and Southern Africa, and the golden jackal of south-central Europe and Asia. The African golden wolf was also formerly considered a jackal.

<i>Vulpes</i> Genus of the sub-family Caninae

Vulpes is a genus of the sub-family Caninae. The members of this genus are colloquially referred to as true foxes, meaning they form a proper clade. The word "fox" occurs in the common names of all species of the genus, but also appears in the common names of other canid species. True foxes are distinguished from members of the genus Canis, such as domesticated dogs, wolves, jackals and coyotes, by their smaller size (5–11 kg), longer, bushier tail, and flatter skull. They have black, triangular markings between their eyes and nose, and the tip of their tail is often a different color from the rest of their pelt. The typical lifespan for this genus is between two and four years, but can reach up to a decade.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bat-eared fox</span> Species of carnivorans

The bat-eared fox is a species of fox found on the African savanna. It is the only extant species of the genus Otocyon and considered a basal canid species. Fossil records indicate this canid first appeared during the middle Pleistocene. There are two separate populations of the bat-eared fox, each of which makes up a subspecies. The bat referred to in its colloquial name is possibly the Egyptian slit-faced bat, which is abundant in the region and has very large ears. Other vernacular names include big-eared fox, black-eared fox, long-eared fox, Delalande's fox, cape fox, and motlosi.

<i>Canis</i> Genus of carnivores

Canis is a genus of the Caninae which includes multiple extant species, such as wolves, dogs, coyotes, and golden jackals. Species of this genus are distinguished by their moderate to large size, their massive, well-developed skulls and dentition, long legs, and comparatively short ears and tails.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kit fox</span> Species of fox native to North America

The kit fox is a fox species that inhabits arid and semi-arid regions of the southwestern United States and northern and central Mexico. These foxes are the smallest of the four species of Vulpes occurring in North America and are among the smallest of the vulpines worldwide. It has also been called a North American counterpart of the fennec fox due to its large ears.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bengal fox</span> Species of carnivore

The Bengal fox, also known as the Indian fox, is a fox endemic to the Indian subcontinent from the Himalayan foothills and Terai of Nepal through southern India, and from southern and eastern Pakistan to eastern India and southeastern Bangladesh.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cape fox</span> Species of carnivore

The Cape fox, also called the asse, cama fox or the silver-backed fox, is a small species of fox, native to southern Africa. It is also called a South African version of a fennec fox due to its similarly big ears. It is the only "true fox" occurring in sub-Saharan Africa, and it retains primitive characteristics of Vulpes because it diverged early in the evolutionary history of the group.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ethiopian wolf</span> Canine native to Ethiopian Highlands

The Ethiopian wolf, also called the red jackal, the Simien jackal or Simien fox, is a canine native to the Ethiopian Highlands. In southeastern Ethiopia, it is also known as the horse jackal. It is similar to the coyote in size and build, and is distinguished by its long and narrow skull, and its red and white fur. Unlike most large canids, which are widespread, generalist feeders, the Ethiopian wolf is a highly specialised feeder of Afroalpine rodents with very specific habitat requirements. It is one of the world's rarest canids, and Africa's most endangered carnivore.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Black-backed jackal</span> Species of carnivore

The black-backed jackal, also called the silver-backed jackal, is a medium-sized canine native to eastern and southern Africa. These regions are separated by roughly 900 kilometers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Golden jackal</span> Species of mammal

The golden jackal, also called the common jackal, is a wolf-like canid that is native to Eurasia. The golden jackal's coat varies in color from a pale creamy yellow in summer to a dark tawny beige in winter. It is smaller and has shorter legs, a shorter tail, a more elongated torso, a less-prominent forehead, and a narrower and more pointed muzzle than the Arabian wolf. It is listed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List due to its widespread distribution and high density in areas with plenty of available food and optimum shelter.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Blanford's fox</span> Species of carnivore

Blanford's fox is a small fox native to West Asia, Central Asia and parts of South Asia. It is listed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Side-striped jackal</span> Canine native to Africa

The side-striped jackal is a canine native to Central and Southern Africa.

Canid hybrids are the result of interbreeding between the species of the subfamily Caninae.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Corsac fox</span> Species of carnivore

The corsac fox, also known simply as a corsac, is a medium-sized fox found in steppes, semi-deserts and deserts in Central Asia, ranging into Mongolia and northern China. Since 2004, it has been classified as least concern by IUCN, but populations fluctuate significantly, and numbers can drop tenfold within a single year. It is also known as the steppe fox. The word "corsac" is derived from the Russian name for the animal, "korsák" (корса́к), derived ultimately from Turkic "karsak".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pale fox</span> Species of carnivore

The pale fox is a species of fox found in the band of African Sahel from Senegal in the west to Sudan in the east. It is one of the least studied of all canid species, in part due to its remote habitat and its sandy coat that blends in well with the desert-like terrain. The pale fox is distinguished by its light-colored fur and oversized ears, which enable it to excel in camouflage and survival in harsh environments.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Red fox</span> Species of mammal

The red fox is the largest of the true foxes and one of the most widely distributed members of the order Carnivora, being present across the entire Northern Hemisphere including most of North America, Europe and Asia, plus parts of North Africa. It is listed as least concern on the IUCN Red List. Its range has increased alongside human expansion, having been introduced to Australia, where it is considered harmful to native small and medium-sized rodents and marsupials. Due to its impact on native species, it is included on the list of the "world's 100 worst invasive species".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">African wolf</span> Species of canine native to Africa

The African wolf is a canine native to North Africa, West Africa, the Sahel, northern East Africa, and the Horn of Africa. It is listed as least concern on the IUCN Red List. In the Middle Atlas in Morocco, it was sighted in elevations as high as 1,800 m (5,900 ft). It is primarily a predator of invertebrates and mammals as large as gazelle fawns, though larger animals are sometimes taken. Its diet also includes animal carcasses, human refuse, and fruit. They are monogamous and territorial; offspring remain with the parents to assist in raising their parents' younger pups.

References

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  3. ↑ "Episode 113: A Zouthern Accent - The History of English Podcast". historyofenglishpodcast.com. 28 June 2018. Archived from the original on 20 July 2018. Retrieved 20 July 2018.
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  5. ↑ "Fox Cubs and the breeding cycle". New Forest Explorers Guide. Archived from the original on 13 August 2016. Retrieved 29 July 2016.
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  7. ↑ Larivière, S.; Pasitschniak-Arts, M. (1996). "Vulpes vulpes". Mammalian Species (537): 1–11. doi: 10.2307/3504236 . JSTOR   3504236.
  8. ↑ Nobleman, Marc Tyler (2007). Foxes . Benchmark Books (NY). pp.  35–36. ISBN   978-0-7614-2237-2.
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  10. ↑ "Arctic fox (Vulpes lagopus)". ARKive. Archived from the original on 2014-10-06. Retrieved 2 October 2014.
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  12. ↑ "Canidae". The University of Edinburgh. Archived from the original on 21 June 2013. Retrieved 23 September 2014.
  13. ↑ Fedriani, J.M.; T. K. Fuller; R. M. Sauvajot; E. C. York (2000-07-05). "Competition and intraguild predation among three sympatric carnivores" (PDF). Oecologia. 125 (2): 258–270. Bibcode:2000Oecol.125..258F. doi:10.1007/s004420000448. hdl: 10261/54628 . PMID   24595837. S2CID   24289407. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-10-06.
  14. ↑ Fox, David L. (2007). "Vulpes vulpes (red fox)". Animal Diversity Web. University of Michigan Museum of Zoology. Archived from the original on 2019-01-06. Retrieved 2009-08-30.
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