American badger

Last updated

American badger
Taxidea taxus (Point Reyes, 2007).jpg
In Point Reyes National Seashore, California
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Carnivora
Family: Mustelidae
Subfamily: Taxidiinae
Pocock, 1920
Genus: Taxidea
Waterhouse, 1839
Species:
T. taxus
Binomial name
Taxidea taxus
(Schreber, 1777)
American Badger area.png
American badger range

The American badger (Taxidea taxus) [n 1] is a North American badger similar in appearance to the European badger, although not closely related. It is found in the western, central, and northeastern United States, northern Mexico, and south-central Canada to certain areas of southwestern British Columbia.

Contents

The American badger's habitat is typified by open grasslands with available prey (such as mice, squirrels, and groundhogs). The species prefers areas such as prairie regions with sandy loam soils where it can dig more easily for its prey.

Taxonomy

The American badger is a member of the Mustelidae, a diverse family of carnivorous mammals that also includes weasels, otters, ferrets, and the wolverine. [4] The American badger belongs to the Taxidiinae, one of four subfamilies of mustelid badgers – the other three being the Melinae (four species in two genera, including the European badger), the Helictidinae (five species of ferret-badgers) and the Mellivorinae (the honey badger); the so-called stink badgers are mephitids. The American badger's closest relative is the prehistoric Chamitataxus . Among extant mustelids, the American badger is the most basal species; its lineage is thought to have split off from the rest of the Mustelidae about 18 million years (Ma) ago, following the split of mustelids from procyonids about 29 Ma ago. [5]

The recognized subspecies include:

ImageSubspeciesDistribution
Badger Seedskdaee National Wildlife Refuge 01 (13676648114).jpg T. t. taxus (the nominate subspecies)central Canada and the central U.S.
T. t. jacksonisouthern Great Lakes region, including southern Ontario
Badger ODFW 2.JPG T. t. jeffersoniAlberta and the northwestern U.S.
Taxidea taxus USFWS New Mexico.jpg T. t. berlandierisouthwestern U.S. and northern Mexico. [6] [7] [8]

The ranges of the subspecies overlap considerably, with intermediate forms occurring in the areas of overlap.

In Mexico, this animal is sometimes called tlalcoyote. The Spanish word for badger is tejón, but in Mexico this word is also used to describe the coati. This can lead to confusion, as both coatis and badgers are found in Mexico.[ citation needed ]

Description

Adult female American badger (sow) AmericanBadger.JPG
Adult female American badger (sow)

The American badger has most of the general characteristics common to badgers; with stocky and low-slung bodies with short, powerful legs, they are identifiable by their huge foreclaws (measuring up to 5 cm in length) and distinctive head markings.

American badgers possess morphological characteristics that enable them to be good fossorial specialists, such as a conical head, bristles on the ears, and nictitating membranes in the eyes. American badgers have powerful forelimbs. They also possess a strong humerus and large bony processes for the attachment of muscles. The mechanical advantage in badger forelimbs is increased by the specialized olecranon process and bones such as the radius and metacarpals. [9]

Measuring generally between 60 and 75 cm (23.5 and 29.5 in) in length, males of the species are slightly larger than females. They may attain an average weight of roughly 6.3 to 7.2 kg (14 to 16 lb) for females and up to 8.6 kg (19 lb) for males. Northern subspecies such as T. t. jeffersonii are heavier than the southern subspecies. In the fall, when food is plentiful, adult male badgers can reach up to 11.5 to 15 kg (25 to 33 lb). [10] [11] [12] [13] In some northern populations, females can average 9.5 kg (21 lb). [14]

American badger Badger ODFW.JPG
American badger
American badger sitting near burrow American badger sitting near burrow - DPLA - e4906d2db49c6f2866bf403b03f8a613.jpg
American badger sitting near burrow

Except for the head, the American badger is covered with a grizzled, brown, black and white coat of coarse hair or fur, giving almost a mixed brown-tan appearance. The coat aids in camouflage in grassland habitat. Its triangular face shows a distinctive black and white pattern, with brown or blackish "badges" marking the cheeks and a white stripe extending from the nose to the base of the head. In the subspecies T. t. berlandieri, the white head stripe extends the full length of the body, to the base of the tail. [15]

Diet

American badger skull Americanbadgerskull.jpg
American badger skull

The American badger is a fossorial carnivore. It preys predominantly on pocket gophers (Geomyidae), ground squirrels ( Spermophilus ), moles (Talpidae), marmots (Marmota), prairie dogs (Cynomys), pika (Ochotona), woodrats (Neotoma), kangaroo rats (Dipodomys), deer mice ( Peromyscus ), and voles ( Microtus ), often digging to pursue prey into their dens, and sometimes plugging tunnel entrances with objects. [16] The American badger is a significant predator of snakes, including rattlesnakes, and is considered their most important predator in South Dakota. [17] They also prey on ground-nesting birds, such as the bank swallow, or sand martin (Riparia riparia), and the burrowing owl (Athene cunicularia), lizards, amphibians, carrion, fish, skunks ( Mephitis and Spilogale ), insects (including bees and honeycomb), and some plant foods, such as corn (Zea mais), peas, green beans, mushrooms and other fungi, and sunflower seeds ( Helianthus ).[ citation needed ]

Behavior

American badgers are generally nocturnal; however, in remote areas with no human encroachment they are routinely observed foraging during the day. Seasonally, a badger observed during daylight hours in the spring months of late March to early May often represents a female foraging during daylight and spending nights with her young. Badgers do not hibernate but may become less active in winter. A badger may spend much of the winter in cycles of torpor that last around 29 hours. They do emerge from their burrows when the temperature is above freezing. [7]

As a fossorial mammal, the American badger uses a scratch-digging process where the forelimbs are withdrawn to break the soil and move the debris behind or to the sides of its body [9]

An abandoned badger burrow may be occupied by mammals of similar size, such as foxes and skunks, as well as animals as diverse as the burrowing owl, tiger salamander and California red-legged frog.

The American badger has been seen working with a coyote in tandem while hunting. Typically this pairing is one badger to one coyote; however, one study found about 9% of sightings included two coyotes to one badger, while 1% had one badger to three coyotes. Researchers have found that the coyote benefits by an increased catch rate of about 33%, and while it is difficult to see precisely how the badger benefits, the badger has been noted to spend more time underground and active. Badgers are also thought to expend less energy while hunting in burrows.

According to research, this partnership works due to the different hunting styles of the predators and how their prey reacts to them. A ground squirrel, upon spotting a coyote, will crawl into its hole to escape; while upon seeing a badger, the ground squirrel will climb out of its hole and use its speed to outrun the badger. Hunting in tandem raises the prey vulnerability and both predators win. [18] [19] [20]

Life cycle

Badgers are normally solitary animals but are thought to expand their territories in the breeding season to seek out mates. Mating occurs in late summer and early fall, with some males breeding with more than one female. American badgers experience delayed implantation, with pregnancies suspended until December or as late as February. Young are born from late March to early April [7] in litters ranging from one to five young, [21] averaging about three. [22]

Badgers are born blind, furred, and helpless. [7] Eyes open at four to six weeks. The female feeds her young solid foods prior to complete weaning and for a few weeks thereafter. [22] Young American badgers first emerge from the den on their own at five to six weeks old. [21] [23] Families usually break up and juveniles disperse from the end of June to August; young American badgers leave their mothers as early as late May or June. [23] Juvenile dispersal movements are erratic. [21]

American badger at Omaha's Henry Doorly Zoo American Badger.jpg
American badger at Omaha's Henry Doorly Zoo

Most female American badgers become pregnant for the first time after they are a year old. A minority of females four to five months old ovulate, and a few become pregnant. Males usually do not breed until their second year. [7]

Large predators occasionally kill American badgers. [21] The average longevity in the wild is 9–10 years, with a record of 14; [24] a captive example lived at least 15 years and five months. [21]

Habitat

American badgers prefer grasslands and open areas with grasslands, which can include parklands, farms, and treeless areas with friable soil and a supply of rodent prey. [25] [26] They may also be found in forest glades and meadows, marshes, brushy areas, hot deserts, and mountain meadows. They are sometimes found at elevations up to 12,000 feet (3,700 m) but are usually found in the Sonoran and Transition life zones (which are at elevations lower and warmer than those characterized by coniferous forests). [22] In Arizona, they occur in desert scrub and semi-arid grasslands. [27] In California, American badgers are primarily able to survive through a combination of open grasslands of agricultural lands, protected land trust and open space lands, and regional and state and national park lands with grassland habitat. Badgers are occasionally found in open chaparral (with less than 50% plant cover) and riparian zones. They are not usually found in mature chaparral. [28] In Manitoba aspen parklands, American badger abundance was positively associated with the abundance of Richardson's ground squirrels ( Spermophilus richardsonii ). [29] In Ontario it primarily resides on the extreme southwestern portion of the province, restricted to the north shore of Lake Erie in open areas generally associated with agriculture and along woodland edges. There have been a few reports from the Bruce-Grey region. [30]

Badgers can be found in the sagebrush deserts of eastern Oregon Badger ODFW 2.JPG
Badgers can be found in the sagebrush deserts of eastern Oregon

American badger use of home range varies with season and sex. Different areas of the home range are used more frequently at different seasons and usually are related to prey availability. Males generally have larger home ranges than females. In a 1972 study, radiotransmitter-tagged American badgers had an average annual home range of 2,100 acres (850 hectares). The home range of one female was 1,790 acres (720 hectares) in summer, 131 acres (53 hectares) in fall, and 5 acres (2.0 hectares) in winter. [31] Lindzey reported average home ranges of 667 to 1,550 acres (270 to 627 ha). [32] Estimated density of American badgers in Utah scrub-steppe was one per square mile (2.6 km2), with 10 dens in active or recent use. [7]

As of 2014, overdevelopment of American badger habitat had resulted in reduced range, decreased prey, and forced badgers into contact with humans when foraging between fragments. Direct observations in Sonoma County, documenting habitat and badger sightings and foraging, reflect various ranges within the fragmented habitat areas from less than 1/2 mile to approximately 4 miles. Within these areas, the availability of prey and a fresh water source are key factors for the preferred habitat areas and ability to survive. Identifying and conserving habitat areas where there is year-round activity, along with identified burrowing patterns and observations of female badger territory for birthing and raising young have become critical factors in survival of the species.

Plant communities

American badgers are most commonly found in treeless areas, including tallgrass and shortgrass prairies, grass-dominated meadows and fields within forested habitats, and shrub-steppe communities. In the Southwest, plant indicators of the Sonoran and Transition life zones (relatively low, dry elevations) commonly associated with American badgers include creosotebush (Larrea tridentata), junipers (Juniperus spp.), gambel oak ( Quercus gambelii ), willows (Salix spp.), cottonwoods (Populus spp.), ponderosa pine ( Pinus ponderosa ), grasses, and sagebrushes ( Artemisia spp.). [22]

In Colorado in 1977, American badgers were common in grass–forb and ponderosa pine habitats. [33] In Kansas, they are common in tallgrass prairie dominated by big bluestem ( Andropogon gerardi ), little bluestem ( Schizachyrium scoparium ), and Indian grass ( Sorghastrum nutans ). [34] In Montana 24 years ago, badgers were present in Glacier National Park in fescue (Festuca spp.) grasslands. [35] In Manitoba, they occur in grassland extensions within aspen ( Populus spp.) parklands. [29]

Cover requirements

American badgers require cover for sleep, concealment, protection from weather, and natal denning. They typically enlarge foraged out gopher or other prey holes, or other animal burrows. Their dens range from about 4 feet to 10 feet in depth and 4 feet to 6 feet in width. A female American Badger may create 2 to 4 burrows in proximity with a connecting tunnel for concealment and safety for her young. Displaced soil from digging out the burrow characteristically appears in front of the burrow entrance, and a view from a distance reveals a mound-like roof of the burrow, with the living and concealment space created underneath the raised-roof appearing mound.

During summer and autumn, badgers range more frequently, with mating season generally in November, and burrowing patterns reflect 1 to 3 burrows may be dug from foraged out prey holes in a day, used for a day to a week, and then abandoned, with possible returns later, and other small wildlife utilizing abandoned burrows in the interim. Where prey is particularly plentiful, they will reuse dens, [22] especially in the fall, sometimes for a few days at a time. In winter, a single den may be used for most of the season. [7] Natal dens are dug by the female and are used for extended periods, but litters may be moved, probably to allow the mother to forage in new areas close to the nursery. Natal dens are usually larger and more complex than diurnal dens. [21]

Predation

While the American badger is an aggressive animal with few natural enemies, it is still vulnerable to other species in its habitat. Predation on American badger by golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos), coyotes (Canis latrans) [7] and bobcats (Lynx rufus) [36] has been reported. Bears (Ursus spp.) and gray wolves (Canis lupus) occasionally kill American badgers, [21] while cougars (Puma concolor), according to a 2019 study, apparently are the main predators of adults, hunting them much more frequently than the other carnivorans, with a documented case where the badger is one of the main prey of a radio-collared cougar. [37]

American badgers are trapped by humans for their pelts. Their fur is used for shaving and painting brushes. [2]

Conservation status

In May 2000, the Canadian Species at Risk Act listed each of the subspecies Taxidea taxus jacksoni and T. t. jeffersonii as an endangered species in Canada. [38] The nominate subspecies was additionally deemed to be of "Special Concern" in November 2012. [39] The subspecies T. t. jeffersonii, which resides in British Columbia, [40] was subsequently divided into two populations, a western one in the Okanagan Valley-Cariboo region [41] and an eastern one in East Kootenay, [42] with each receiving an endangered listing. The Canadian population of T. t. jacksoni is isolated from other badgers in a small area of southwestern Ontario near the border with the United States south of the Niagara Peninsula, although a population may also exist in the northwest of the province. [43]

The California Department of Fish and Game designated the American badger as a California species of special concern. [44]

Notes

  1. ↑ It was formerly classified as part of the genus Meles as Meles labradorica (Lat. "Labrador badger"), [2] then classified as Taxidea americana (Lat. "American taxid" or "badger-like animal") [3]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Coyote</span> Species of canine native to North America

The coyote is a species of canine native to North America. It is smaller than its close relative, the wolf, and slightly smaller than the closely related eastern wolf and red wolf. It fills much of the same ecological niche as the golden jackal does in Eurasia. The coyote is larger and more predatory and was once referred to as the American jackal by a behavioral ecologist. Other historical names for the species include the prairie wolf and the brush wolf.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kit fox</span> Species of fox native to North America

The kit fox is a fox species that inhabits arid and semi-arid regions of the southwestern United States and northern and central Mexico. These foxes are the smallest of the four species of Vulpes occurring in North America and are among the smallest of the vulpines worldwide. It has also been called a North American counterpart of the fennec fox due to its large ears.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">American marten</span> Species of North American mammal

The American marten, also known as the American pine marten, is a species of North American mammal, a member of the family Mustelidae. The species is sometimes referred to as simply the pine marten. The name "pine marten" is derived from the common name of the distinct Eurasian species, Martes martes. Martes americana is found throughout Canada, Alaska, and parts of the northern United States. It is a long, slender-bodied weasel, with fur ranging from yellowish to brown to near black. It may be confused with the fisher, but the marten is lighter in color and smaller. Identification of the marten is further eased by a characteristic bib that is a distinctly different color than the body. Sexual dimorphism is pronounced, with males being much larger.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Eastern cottontail</span> Species of mammal

The eastern cottontail is a New World cottontail rabbit, a member of the family Leporidae. It is the most common rabbit species in North America.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Eastern meadow vole</span> Species of mammal

The eastern meadow vole, sometimes called the field mouse or meadow mouse, is a North American vole found in eastern Canada and the United States. Its range extends farther south along the Atlantic coast.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">San Joaquin antelope squirrel</span> Species of rodent

The San Joaquin antelope squirrel or Nelson's antelope squirrel, is a species of antelope squirrel, in the San Joaquin Valley of the U.S. state of California.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pygmy rabbit</span> Species of mammal

The pygmy rabbit is a rabbit species native to the United States. It is also the only native rabbit species in North America to dig its own burrow. The pygmy rabbit differs significantly from species within either the Lepus (hare) or Sylvilagus (cottontail) genera and is generally considered to be within the monotypic genus Brachylagus. One isolated population, the Columbia Basin pygmy rabbit, is listed as an endangered species by the U.S. Federal government, though the International Union for Conservation of Nature lists the species as lower risk.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mohave ground squirrel</span> Species of rodent

The Mohave ground squirrel is a species of ground squirrel found only in the Mojave Desert in California. The squirrel was first described in 1886 by Frank Stephens of San Diego. It is listed as a threatened species under the California Endangered Species Act, but not under the federal Endangered Species Act. The IUCN lists this species as near threatened.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Black-tailed prairie dog</span> Species of rodent

The black-tailed prairie dog is a rodent of the family Sciuridae found in the Great Plains of North America from about the United States–Canada border to the United States–Mexico border. Unlike some other prairie dogs, these animals do not truly hibernate. The black-tailed prairie dog can be seen above ground in midwinter. A black-tailed prairie dog town in Texas was reported to cover 25,000 sq mi (64,000 km2) and included 400,000,000 individuals. Prior to habitat destruction, the species may have been the most abundant prairie dog in central North America. It was one of two prairie dogs described by the Lewis and Clark Expedition in the journals and diaries of their expedition.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Western toad</span> Species of amphibian

The western toad is a large toad species, between 5.6 and 13 cm long, native to western North America. A. boreas is frequently encountered during the wet season on roads, or near water at other times. It can jump a considerable distance for a toad. Breeding occurs between March and July in mountainous areas, and as early as January in lower-elevation regions. The female lays up to 17,000 eggs stuck together in strings that adhere to vegetation and other objects along water edges.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ord's kangaroo rat</span> Species of rodent

Ord's kangaroo rat is a kangaroo rat native to western North America, specifically the Great Plains and the Great Basin, with its range extending from extreme southern Canada to central Mexico.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Uinta ground squirrel</span> Species of rodent

The Uinta ground squirrel, commonly called a "chisler" and Potgut in northern Utah, is a species of rodent native to the western United States.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">White-throated woodrat</span> Species of rodent

The white-throated woodrat is a species of rodent in the family Cricetidae. It is found from central Mexico north to Utah and Colorado in the United States. It is primarily a western species in the United States, extending from central Texas west to southeastern California. Populations east of the Rio Grande in New Mexico and Trans-Pecos Texas, previously considered to be variants of the white-throated woodrat, have since 1988 been assigned to the white-toothed woodrat.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Merriam's kangaroo rat</span> Species of rodent

Merriam's kangaroo rat is a species of rodent in the family Heteromyidae. The species name commemorates Clinton Hart Merriam. It is found in the Upper and Lower Sonoran life zones of the southwestern United States, Baja California, and northern Mexico.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Plains pocket gopher</span> Species of rodent

The plains pocket gopher is one of 35 species of pocket gophers, so named in reference to their externally located, fur-lined cheek pouches. They are burrowing animals, found in grasslands and agricultural land across the Great Plains of North America, from Manitoba to Texas. Pocket gophers are the most highly fossorial rodents found in North America.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Columbian ground squirrel</span> Species of rodent

The Columbian ground squirrel is a species of rodent common in certain regions of Canada and the northwestern United States. It is the second largest member of the genus Urocitellus, which is part of the tribe Marmotini, along with marmots, chipmunks, prairie dogs, and other holarctic ground squirrels. They are stout, with short dense fur, which is characteristically tawny across the bridge of the nose. Social encounters sometimes are initiated with kissing behavior and the most common activity above ground is standing at attention. Residing in mountainous terrain and high plains in northern latitudes, they hibernate for 8 to 9 months of the year in burrows, which may be used for many years. They are emaciated when emerging in the spring. The Columbian ground squirrel came to the attention of the scientific community through writings produced by Lewis and Clark, while 21st century molecular genetics has more finely illuminated its ties with other close relatives.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Townsend's ground squirrel</span> Species of rodent

Townsend's ground squirrel is a species of rodent in the family Sciuridae. It is found in high desert shrublands in several areas of the United States.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rock squirrel</span> Species of rodent

The rock squirrel is a species of rodent in the family Sciuridae. It is native to Mexico and the Southwestern United States, including southern Nevada, Utah, Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico, West Texas, and the panhandle of Oklahoma.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Southern pocket gopher</span> Species of rodent in the family Geomyidae, found in Mexico and the United States

The southern pocket gopher is a species of rodent in the family Geomyidae. It is found in Mexico and the United States, usually in high altitude grassland and shrubland. It feeds on plant material and has an extensive burrow above which is a large heap of earth on the surface of the ground.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Black-tailed jackrabbit</span> Common hare of the western United States and Mexico

The black-tailed jackrabbit, also known as the American desert hare, is a common hare of the western United States and Mexico, where it is found at elevations from sea level up to 10,000 ft (3,000 m). Reaching a length around 2 ft (61 cm), and a weight from 3 to 6 lb, the black-tailed jackrabbit is one of the largest North American hares. Black-tailed jackrabbits occupy mixed shrub-grassland terrains. Their breeding depends on the location; it typically peaks in spring, but may continue all year round in warm climates. Young are born fully furred with eyes open; they are well camouflaged and are mobile within minutes of birth, thus females do not protect or even stay with the young except during nursing. The average litter size is around four, but may be as low as two and as high as seven in warm regions.

References

  1. ↑ Helgen, K.; Reid, F. (2016). "Taxidea taxus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . 2016: e.T41663A45215410. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-1.RLTS.T41663A45215410.en . Retrieved November 19, 2021.
  2. 1 2 EB (1878).
  3. ↑ EB (1911).
  4. ↑ Wozencraft, W. C. (2005). "Order Carnivora". In Wilson, D. E.; Reeder, D. M. (eds.). Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference (3rd ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 619. ISBN   978-0-8018-8221-0. OCLC   62265494.
  5. ↑ Law, C. J.; Slater, G. J.; Mehta, R. S. (January 1, 2018). "Lineage Diversity and Size Disparity in Musteloidea: Testing Patterns of Adaptive Radiation Using Molecular and Fossil-Based Methods". Systematic Biology. 67 (1): 127–144. doi: 10.1093/sysbio/syx047 . PMID   28472434.
  6. ↑ "Taxidea". funet.fi. Retrieved August 7, 2007.
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Long, Charles A. (1972). "Taxidea taxus" (PDF). Journal of Mammalogy. 26 (26): 1–4. doi:10.2307/3504047. JSTOR   3504047. S2CID   253904857. Archived (PDF) from the original on July 13, 2007. Retrieved August 7, 2007.
  8. ↑ Long, Charles A. (1972). "Taxonomic Revision of the North American Badger, Taxidea taxus". Journal of Mammalogy. 53 (4): 725–759. doi:10.2307/1379211. JSTOR   1379211.
  9. 1 2 Moore, Alexis L.; Budny, Joseph E.; Russell, Anthony P.; Butcher, Michael T. (2012). "Architectural specialization of the intrinsic thoracic limb musculature of the American badger (Taxidea taxus)". Journal of Morphology. 274 (1): 35–48. doi:10.1002/jmor.20074. PMID   22987341. S2CID   5079987.
  10. ↑ Feldhamer, George A.; Bruce Carlyle Thompson; Joseph A. Chapman (2003). Wild Mammals of North America: Biology, Management, and Conservation. JHU Press. p. 683. ISBN   0-8018-7416-5.
  11. ↑ Lindzey, Fred (1994) "Badgers", Ch. 28 in The Handbook: Prevention and Control of Wildlife Damage. University of Nebraska-Lincoln. ISBN   9780961301514
  12. ↑ Minta, S. C., Minta, K. A., & Lott, D. F. (1992). "Hunting associations between badgers (Taxidea taxus) and coyotes (Canis latrans)". Journal of Mammalogy. 73 (4): 814–820. doi:10.2307/1382201. JSTOR   1382201.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  13. ↑ Quinn, J. H. (2008). The ecology of the American badger Taxidea taxus in California: assessing conservation needs on multiple scales. University of California, Davis.
  14. ↑ Harlow, Henry J.; Miller, Brian; Ryder, Thomas; Ryder, Lisa (1985). "Energy requirements for gestation and lactation in a delayed implanter, the American badger". Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Physiology. 82 (4): 885–889. doi:10.1016/0300-9629(85)90501-8. PMID   14575040.
  15. ↑ American Society of Mammalogists Staff; Smithsonian Institution Staff (1999). The Smithsonian Book of North American Mammals. UBC Press. p. 179. ISBN   0-7748-0762-8.
  16. ↑ Michener, Gail R. (2004). "Hunting techniques and tool use by North American badgers preying on Richardson's ground squirrels". Journal of Mammalogy. 85 (5): 1019–1027. doi: 10.1644/BNS-102 . JSTOR   1383835.
  17. ↑ Klauber, Lawrence Monroe (1997). Rattlesnakes: Their Habits, Life Histories, and Influence on Mankind. Volume 1. 2nd ed. Berkeley (California): University of California Press. p. 1076. ISBN   0520210565.
  18. ↑ McLendon, Russell (May 7, 2020). "Why coyotes and badgers hunt together". mnn.com.
  19. ↑ "Do coyotes and badgers work together to find food?". howstuffworks.com. January 6, 2009.
  20. ↑ "Spotted! A Coyote and Badger Hunting Together". fws.gov. November 12, 2016.
  21. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Lindzey, Frederick G. (1982). "Badger: Taxidea taxus", pp. 653–663 in Chapman, Joseph A.; Feldhamer, George A., eds. Wild mammals of North America: Biology, management, and economics. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN   0801874165.
  22. 1 2 3 4 5 Long, Charles A.; Killingley, Carl Arthur. (1983). The badgers of the world. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas Publishing
  23. 1 2 Messick, John P.; Hornocker, Maurice G. (1981). "Ecology of the Badger in Southwestern Idaho". Wildlife Monographs. 76 (76): 1–53. JSTOR   3830719.
  24. ↑ Lindsey, Frederick G. (1971). Ecology of badgers in Curlew Valley, Utah and Idaho with emphasis on movement and activity patterns. Logan, UT: Utah State University
  25. ↑ Banfield, A. W. F. (1974). The mammals of Canada. Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press
  26. ↑ de Vos, A. (1969). "Ecological conditions affecting the production of wild herbivorous mammals on grasslands", pp. 137–179 in Advances in ecological research. On file at U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT
  27. ↑ Davis, Russell; Sidner, Ronnie. (1992). Mammals of woodland and forest habitats in the Rincon Mountains of Saguaro National Monument, Arizona. Technical Report NPS/WRUA/NRTR-92/06. Tucson, AZ: The University of Arizona, School of Renewable Natural Resources, Cooperative National Park esources Study Unit
  28. ↑ Quinn, Ronald D. (1990). "Habitat preferences and distribution of mammals in California chaparral". Res. Pap. PSW-202. Berkeley, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station
  29. 1 2 Bird, Ralph D. (1930). "Biotic communities of the aspen parkland of central Canada". Ecology. 11 (2): 356–442. doi:10.2307/1930270. JSTOR   1930270.
  30. ↑ "Ontario Badgers". ontariobadgers.org.
  31. ↑ Sargeant, Alan B.; Warner, Dwain W. (1972). "Movements and denning habits of a badger". Journal of Mammalogy. 53 (1): 207–210. doi:10.2307/1378851. JSTOR   1378851. S2CID   84713506.
  32. ↑ Lindzey, Frederick G. (1978). "Movement patterns of badgers in northwestern Utah". Journal of Wildlife Management. 42 (2): 418–422. doi:10.2307/3800282. JSTOR   3800282.
  33. ↑ Morris, Meredith J.; Reid, Vincent H.; Pillmore, Richard E.; Hammer, Mary C. (1977). "Birds and mammals of Manitou Experimental Forest, Colorado". Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-38. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment.
  34. ↑ Gibson, David J. (1989). "Effects of animal disturbance on tallgrass prairie vegetation". American Midland Naturalist. 121 (1): 144–154. doi:10.2307/2425665. JSTOR   2425665.
  35. ↑ Tyser, Robin W. (1990). "Ecology of fescue grasslands in Glacier National Park", pp. 59–60 in Boyce, Mark S.; Plumb, Glenn E. (eds.) National Park Service Research Center, 14th annual report. Laramie, WY: University of Wyoming, National Park Service Research Center.
  36. ↑ Skinner, Scott (1990). "Earthmover". Wyoming Wildlife. 54 (2): 4–9.
  37. ↑ Thomas, Pete (September 10, 2019). "This cougar's diet might surprise you". Usa Today.
  38. ↑ "Species at Risk Act: List of Wildlife Species at Risk". Archived from the original on April 19, 2013. Retrieved March 14, 2013.
  39. ↑ "American Badger taxus subspecies (Taxidea taxus taxus)". Species at risk public registry. Government of Canada. June 13, 2023. Retrieved July 22, 2023.
  40. ↑ "American Badger jeffersonii subspecies (Taxidea taxus jeffersonii)". Species at risk public registry. Government of Canada. June 13, 2023. Retrieved July 22, 2023.
  41. ↑ "American Badger jeffersonii subspecies (Taxidea taxus jeffersonii), Western population". Species at risk public registry. Government of Canada. June 13, 2023. Retrieved July 22, 2023.
  42. ↑ "American Badger jeffersonii subspecies (Taxidea taxus jeffersonii), Eastern population". Species at risk public registry. Government of Canada. June 13, 2023. Retrieved July 22, 2023.
  43. ↑ "American Badger jacksoni subspecies (Taxidea taxus jacksoni)". Species at risk public registry. Government of Canada. June 13, 2023. Retrieved July 22, 2023.
  44. ↑ "Mammal Species of Special Concern". dfg.ca.gov. Archived from the original on November 23, 2010. Retrieved November 27, 2010.

Cited sources

PD-icon.svg This article incorporates public domain material from Taxidea taxus. United States Department of Agriculture. Badgers

Further reading

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.