Antarctic fur seal

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Antarctic fur seal
Seebar (Arctocephalus) 01.jpg
Male Antarctic fur seal on South Georgia
CITES Appendix II (CITES) [2]
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Carnivora
Clade: Pinnipedia
Family: Otariidae
Genus: Arctocephalus
Species:
A. gazella
Binomial name
Arctocephalus gazella
Peters, 1875
Antarctic Fur Seal area.png
Antarctic fur seal range

The Antarctic fur seal (Arctocephalus gazella) is one of eight seals in the genus Arctocephalus , and one of nine fur seals in the subfamily Arctocephalinae. Despite what its name suggests, the Antarctic fur seal is mostly distributed in Subantarctic islands [3] and its scientific name is thought to have come from the German vessel SMS Gazelle, which was the first to collect specimens of this species from Kerguelen Islands. [4]

Contents

Taxonomy

Antarctic fur seals are member of the genus Arctocephalus. Recently, a proposal was made to reassign this species to the resurrected genus Arctophoca.

Antarctic fur seals may be confused with southern otariids that share their range, like Subantarctic (A. tropicalis), New Zealand (A. forsteri), and South American fur seals (A. australis), and the Juan Fernandez fur seal (A. phillippii), as well as the South American (Otaria flavescens) and New Zealand sea lions (Phocarctos hookeri). [5] Genetic studies on population structure suggest that there are two genetically distinct regions: a western region including the islands of the Scotia Arc, Bouvet Island, and Marion Islands, and an eastern region, including Kerguelen and Macquarie Islands. Seals from Crozet Islands and Heard Island are mixtures from both regions. [6]

Description

Antarctic fur seal pups on Salisbury Plain, South Georgia Antarctic Fur Seal Pups amid Tussock Grass (5724536166).jpg
Antarctic fur seal pups on Salisbury Plain, South Georgia

The fur seal is a midsized pinniped with a relatively long neck and pointed muzzle compared with others in the family. The nose does not extend much past the mouth, the external ears are long, prominent, and naked at the tip. Adults have very long vibrissae, particularly males, up to 35 to 50 cm. The fore flippers are about one-third, and hind flippers slightly more than one-fourth of the total length. [7]

Adult males are dark brown in colour. Females and juveniles tend to be paler, almost grey with lighter undersides. Colour patterns are highly variable, and scientists reported that some hybridization between Subantarctic and Antarctic fur seals has occurred. [8] [9] Pups are dark brown at birth, almost black in color. However, a very small number of partially leucistic Antarctic fur seals have been found. [10]

Males are substantially larger than females. Males grow up to 2 m (6.5 ft) long and with a mean weigh of 133 kg (293 lb). Females reach 1.4 m (4.6 ft) with a mean weight of 34 kg (74.9 lb). At birth, mean standard length is 67.4 cm (58–66) and mass is 5.9 kg (4.9–6.6) in males and 5.4 kg (4.8–5.9) in females. [11]

Antarctic fur seals live up to 20 years with a maximum observed for female of 24. [12]

Distribution

Antarctic fur seals are believed to be the most abundant species of fur seal. [13] The largest congregation occurs on the island of South Georgia in the southern Atlantic Ocean, which holds approximately 95% of the global population. [14] The current best estimate of the South Georgia population is between 4.5 and 6.2 million animals. Bouvet Island has the second largest population with 46,834 animals. [15] However, there are regional differences in population trends: some colonies are increasing in size (e.g. Kerguelen Islands, McDonald Islands), some are stable (e.g. Macquarie Island, Heard islands), and some are showing a decrease (e.g. Bouvet Island). [15]

Antarctic fur seals have a circumpolar distribution and breed from 61° S to the Antarctic Convergence. Breeding colonies are found at South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands, South Orkney Islands, South Shetland Islands and Bouvet Island in the Southern Atlantic Ocean; Marion Island, Crozet Islands, Kerguelen and Heard Island in the Southern Indian Ocean; and Macquarie Island in the Southern Pacific Ocean. [16] During winter, Antarctic fur seals range widely from the Antarctic continent to the Falkland Islands, and southern Argentina reaching as far as the Mar del Plata and Gough Island. [17] [18]

Behaviour

Antarctic fur seal swimming near Clarence Island Antarctic Fur Seal swimming (6018836251).jpg
Antarctic fur seal swimming near Clarence Island

Antarctic fur seals are one of the better-studied Southern Ocean predators. However, the vast majority of information has been collected during summer breeding months. The breeding system of the Antarctic Fur Seal is polygynous, and dominant breeding males mate with as many as 20 females during a successful season. Males establish breeding grounds in October to early November. [19] Females generally reach the colonies in December and give birth to a single pup several days later. [20] Gestation lasts between 8 and 9 months and it has been observed a high breeding synchrony across the species' range, concentrating 90% of pup births in a 10-day window. Pups are weaned at about four months old. [21] Juveniles may then spend several years at sea before returning to begin their breeding cycles.

The ecology of Antarctic fur seals during the non-breeding winter is poorly understood. Adult and subadult males may form groups while moulting along the Antarctic Peninsula in late summer and early autumn. Adult females are gregarious but relatively asocial other than the strong bond they establish with their pups, although there are occasional aggressive encounters with nearby females or other pups and brief interactions with adult males to mate. These seals appear to be solitary when foraging and migrating. [19]

The usual food source for individuals in the Atlantic Region is Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba); while in the Indian Ocean the diet is mostly based on fish and squid. The fish prey are principally myctophids, icefish, and Notothenids, although skates and rays are also consumed. [4] Penguins are occasionally taken by Antarctic fur seal males. [22] Seasonal differences in diet have been recorded across colonies, seasons and years. [23] [24] Studies have showed that female Antarctic fur seals can undertake wide-ranging foraging migrations during winter. [18] Interannual differences appear to be related to differences in local oceanographic conditions. [25] [26]

Diet

Antarctic fur seals feed primarily on krill, fish, and squid. Birds are eaten occasionally outside the breeding season. Nursing mothers near South Georgia are dependent on krill during the breeding season, therefore the availability of krill is important to the reproductive success of this animal. The colonies at Macquarie Island and the Kerguelen Islands rely more on a diet of fish and squid. Antarctic fur seals dive at night to feed. [27]

Population status

Antarctic fur seals and king penguins at Salisbury Plain, South Georgia Antarctic Fur Seals of various sizes (5724162986).jpg
Antarctic fur seals and king penguins at Salisbury Plain, South Georgia
Pale fur seal pup in Grytviken, South Georgia Junger Seebar (Arctocephalus) Grytviken.jpg
Pale fur seal pup in Grytviken, South Georgia

South Georgia islands, which hold approximately 95% of the global population, [14] had a total population in 1999/2000 between 4.5 and 6.2 million. [15] The South Georgia population reached carrying capacity fairly recently and may thus be spilling over into relatively nearby, lower density sites. [6] However, the abundance of adult females is estimated to have declined by some 30% between 2003 and 2012, and by 24% since 1984 to around 550,000. The population trend according to the IUCN Red list is 'decreasing' [1] and it has been suggested that this decline is due to the effects of global climate change on prey availability. [28]

Threats

Historically the species were decimated by the sealing industry for its fur and its population was driven close to extinction by the 19th century. [29] Since sealing operations ceased in the early 20th century, the species has recovered at different rates across its former geographic range. [15]

Waters inhabited by Antarctic fur seals are exploited by few fisheries, but these may expand in their range in the future. [30] A 1997 study at South Georgia indicated that several thousand Antarctic fur seals were entangled in man-made debris such as discarded fishing line, nets, packing bands and anything that can form a collar. [31] Consequently, CCAMLR campaigned for compliance with MARPOL provisions relating to waste disposal at sea, and for cutting of any material jettisoned which could form collars to entangle seals. Subsequent monitoring of entangled fur seals confirmed that entanglement is still a persistent problem, but it has halved in recent years. [32] Trawling activities developing around Macquarie Island may affect the prey base of the primarily fish-eating Antarctic fur seals that breed on those islands. Recent work indicates that there is significant overlap between foraging areas and fisheries activities, suggesting a potential for competition for prey resources may exist.

Leopard seals have been noted to take as many as a third of the Antarctic Fur Seal pups born at sites in the South Shetland Islands. [33] Levels of predation may be high enough to cause a population decline at these sites. [34]

As well as the effects of hunting and fishing, the numbers of humans visiting the Antarctic and sub-Antarctic each year for tourism and scientific expeditions have risen. This increase in visits has led to greater interaction between the local fauna and humans. [35] With this greater interaction comes the risk of affecting the territoriality of seals especially during the mating season. This can also increase the possibility of 'exotic' injuries to humans. In 2015 a man was rescued from a South Georgia Island by British Forces after receiving a serious bite from a fur seal. [36] Due to the remote location of where these injuries occur, this can lead to complications in getting people to a physician with the relevant experience in treating exotic animal bites. This issue is compounded by the complexity of fur seal behavior and how serious a bite can be [37] and the risk of transfer of diseases. [38] The implication for Antarctic Fur Seals but this species is considered to be one of several pinnipeds at high risk of future disease outbreaks because of their tendency to congregate in large dense aggregations and the effect of environmental changes associated with global warming on the spread of diseases. [39]

Finally, the 19th century population bottleneck led to reduced genetic diversity, leaving it again more vulnerable to disease and stresses of climate change. In particular, the Antarctic fur seal's primary prey base, krill, could be reduced as a result of ocean acidification, or the distribution could be altered by climate change.

Conservation status

IUCN Conservation status: Least Concern. [1]

The species is protected by the governments in whose waters it resides (Australia, South Africa, France) and by the Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals in waters south of 60° S. [40] The animal is also listed in Appendix 2 of CITES. [41]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fur seal</span> Subfamily of mammals

Fur seals are any of nine species of pinnipeds belonging to the subfamily Arctocephalinae in the family Otariidae. They are much more closely related to sea lions than true seals, and share with them external ears (pinnae), relatively long and muscular foreflippers, and the ability to walk on all fours. They are marked by their dense underfur, which made them a long-time object of commercial hunting. Eight species belong to the genus Arctocephalus and are found primarily in the Southern Hemisphere, while a ninth species also sometimes called fur seal, the Northern fur seal, belongs to a different genus and inhabits the North Pacific. The fur seals in Arctocephalus are more closely related to sea lions than they are to the Northern fur seal, but all three groups are more closely related to one another than they are to true seals.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Eared seal</span> Family of marine mammals

An eared seal, otariid, or otary is any member of the marine mammal family Otariidae, one of three groupings of pinnipeds. They comprise 15 extant species in seven genera and are commonly known either as sea lions or fur seals, distinct from true seals (phocids) and the walrus (odobenids). Otariids are adapted to a semiaquatic lifestyle, feeding and migrating in the water, but breeding and resting on land or ice. They reside in subpolar, temperate, and equatorial waters throughout the Pacific and Southern Oceans, the southern Indian, and Atlantic Oceans. They are conspicuously absent in the north Atlantic.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sea lion</span> Subfamily of aquatic mammals

Sea lions are pinnipeds characterized by external ear flaps, long foreflippers, the ability to walk on all fours, short and thick hair, and a big chest and belly. Together with the fur seals, they make up the family Otariidae, eared seals. The sea lions have six extant and one extinct species in five genera. Their range extends from the subarctic to tropical waters of the global ocean in both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres, with the notable exception of the northern Atlantic Ocean. They have an average lifespan of 20–30 years. A male California sea lion weighs on average about 300 kg (660 lb) and is about 2.4 m (8 ft) long, while the female sea lion weighs 100 kg (220 lb) and is 1.8 m (6 ft) long. The largest sea lions are Steller's sea lions, which can weigh 1,000 kg (2,200 lb) and grow to a length of 3.0 m (10 ft). Sea lions consume large quantities of food at a time and are known to eat about 5–8% of their body weight at a single feeding. Sea lions can move around 16 knots in water and at their fastest they can reach a speed of about 30 knots. Three species, the Australian sea lion, the Galápagos sea lion and the New Zealand sea lion, are listed as endangered.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pinniped</span> Taxonomic group of semi-aquatic mammals

Pinnipeds, commonly known as seals, are a widely distributed and diverse clade of carnivorous, fin-footed, semiaquatic, mostly marine mammals. They comprise the extant families Odobenidae, Otariidae, and Phocidae, with 34 extant species and more than 50 extinct species described from fossils. While seals were historically thought to have descended from two ancestral lines, molecular evidence supports them as a monophyletic group. Pinnipeds belong to the suborder Caniformia of the order Carnivora; their closest living relatives are musteloids, having diverged about 50 million years ago.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Crabeater seal</span> Species of carnivore

The crabeater seal, also known as the krill-eater seal, is a true seal with a circumpolar distribution around the coast of Antarctica. They are the only member of the genus Lobodon. They are medium- to large-sized, relatively slender and pale-colored, found primarily on the free-floating pack ice that extends seasonally out from the Antarctic coast, which they use as a platform for resting, mating, social aggregation and accessing their prey. They are by far the most abundant seal species in the world. While population estimates are uncertain, there are at least 7 million and possibly as many as 75 million individuals. This success of this species is due to its specialized predation on the abundant Antarctic krill of the Southern Ocean, for which it has uniquely adapted, sieve-like tooth structure. Indeed, its scientific name, translated as "lobe-toothed (lobodon) crab eater (carcinophaga)", refers specifically to the finely lobed teeth adapted to filtering their small crustacean prey.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Leopard seal</span> Macropredatory species of Antarctic seal

The leopard seal, also referred to as the sea leopard, is the second largest species of seal in the Antarctic. Its only natural predator is the orca. It feeds on a wide range of prey including cephalopods, other pinnipeds, krill, fish, and birds, particularly penguins. It is the only species in the genus Hydrurga. Its closest relatives are the Ross seal, the crabeater seal and the Weddell seal, which together are known as the tribe of Lobodontini seals. The name hydrurga means "water worker" and leptonyx is the Greek for "thin-clawed".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Northern elephant seal</span> Species of marine mammal

The northern elephant seal is one of two species of elephant seal. It is a member of the family Phocidae. Elephant seals derive their name from their great size and from the male's large proboscis, which is used in making extraordinarily loud roaring noises, especially during the mating competition. Sexual dimorphism in size is great. Correspondingly, the mating system is highly polygynous; a successful male is able to impregnate up to 50 females in one season.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">King penguin</span> Species of bird

The king penguin is the second largest species of penguin, smaller, but somewhat similar in appearance to the emperor penguin. There are two subspecies, A. p. patagonicus and A. p. halli; patagonicus is found in the South Atlantic and halli in the South Indian Ocean and at Macquarie Island.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Macaroni penguin</span> Species of bird

The macaroni penguin is a species of penguin found from the Subantarctic to the Antarctic Peninsula. One of six species of crested penguin, it is very closely related to the royal penguin, and some authorities consider the two to be a single species. It bears a distinctive yellow crest that resembles macaroni, from which its name is derived. Its face and upperparts are black and sharply delineated from the white underparts. Adults weigh on average 5.5 kg (12 lb) and are 70 cm (28 in) in length. The male and female are similar in appearance; the male is slightly larger and stronger with a relatively larger bill. Like all penguins, it is flightless, with a streamlined body and wings stiffened and flattened into flippers for a marine lifestyle.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Subantarctic fur seal</span> Species of carnivore

The subantarctic fur seal is a species of arctocephaline found in the southern parts of the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic Oceans. It was first described by Gray in 1872 from a specimen recovered in northern Australia—hence the inappropriate specific name tropicalis.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Guadalupe fur seal</span> Species of carnivore

The Guadalupe fur seal is one of eight members of the fur seal genus Arctocephalus. They are the northernmost member of this genus. Sealers reduced the population to just a few dozen by the late 19th century, but the species had recovered to 10,000 in number by the late 1990s. Many individuals can be found on Mexico's Guadalupe Island.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Juan Fernández fur seal</span> Species of carnivore

The Juan Fernández fur seal is the second smallest of the fur seals, second only to the Galápagos fur seal. They are found only on the Pacific Coast of South America, more specifically on the Juan Fernández Islands and the Desventuradas Islands. There is still much that is unknown about this species. Scientists still do not know the average life span of this species, or the diet and behavior of males apart from the breeding season.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Brown fur seal</span> Species of carnivore

The brown fur seal, also known as the Cape fur seal, South African fur seal and Australian fur seal, is a species of fur seal.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">South American sea lion</span> Species of carnivore

The South American sea lion, also called the southern sea lion and the Patagonian sea lion, is a sea lion found on the western and southeastern coasts of South America. It is the only member of the genus Otaria. The species is highly sexually dimorphic. Males have a large head and prominent mane. They mainly feed on fish and cephalopods and haul out on sand, gravel, rocky, or pebble beaches. In most populations, breeding males are both territorial and harem holding; they establish territories first and then try to herd females into them. The overall population of the species is considered stable, estimated at 265,000 animals.

<i>Arctocephalus forsteri</i> Species of carnivore

Arctocephalus forsteri is a species of fur seal found mainly around southern Australia and New Zealand. The name New Zealand fur seal is used by English speakers in New Zealand; kekeno is used in the Māori language. As of 2014, the common name long-nosed fur seal has been proposed for the population of seals inhabiting Australia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">South American fur seal</span> Species of mammal

The South American fur seal breeds on the coasts of Peru, Chile, the Falkland Islands, Argentina, Uruguay and Brazil. The total population is around 250,000. However, population counts are sparse and outdated. Although Uruguay has long been considered to be the largest population of South American fur seals, recent census data indicates that the largest breeding population of A. a. australis are at the Falkland Islands followed by Uruguay. The population of South American fur seals in 1999 was estimated at 390,000, a drop from a 1987 estimate of 500,000 - however a paucity of population data, combined with inconsistent census methods, makes it difficult to interpret global population trends.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Weddell seal</span> Species of mammal

The Weddell seal is a relatively large and abundant true seal with a circumpolar distribution surrounding Antarctica. The Weddell seal was discovered and named in the 1820s during expeditions led by British sealing captain James Weddell to the area of the Southern Ocean now known as the Weddell Sea. The life history of this species is well documented since it occupies fast ice environments close to the Antarctic continent and often adjacent to Antarctic bases. It is the only species in the genus Leptonychotes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Grey-headed albatross</span> Species of bird

The grey-headed albatross also known as the gray-headed mollymawk, is a large seabird from the albatross family. It has a circumpolar distribution, nesting on isolated islands in the Southern Ocean and feeding at high latitudes, further south than any of the other mollymawks. Its name derives from its ashy-gray head, throat and upper neck.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Southern elephant seal</span> Species of marine mammal

The southern elephant seal is one of two species of elephant seals. It is the largest member of the clade Pinnipedia and the order Carnivora, as well as the largest extant marine mammal that is not a cetacean. It gets its name from its massive size and the large proboscis of the adult male, which is used to produce very loud roars, especially during the breeding season. A bull southern elephant seal is about 40% heavier than a male northern elephant seal, which is nearly twice the weight of a male walrus, or 6–7 times heavier than the largest living mostly terrestrial carnivorans, the Kodiak bear and the polar bear.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Eastern rockhopper penguin</span> Subspecies of bird

The eastern rockhopper penguin, also known as the tawaki piki toka, is a crested penguin with yellow crest feathers. It is a subspecies of the southern rockhopper penguin found in subantarctic regions and the Indian Ocean. It is one of the smallest crested penguins and has distinctive pink margins around its bill.

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  34. ↑ Boveng PL, Hiruki LM, Schwartz MK, Bengtson JL (1998). "Population growth of Antarctic fur seals: limitation by a top predator, the leopard seal?". Ecology. 79 (8): 2863–2877. doi:10.1890/0012-9658(1998)079[2863:PGOAFS]2.0.CO;2.
  35. ↑ Hofmeyr, GJG, Krafft BA, Kirkman SP, Bester MN, Lydersen C, Kovacs KM (2005). "Population changes of Antarctic fur seals at Nyrøysa, Bouvetøya" (PDF). Polar Biology. 28 (9): 725–731. Bibcode:2005PoBio..28..725H. doi:10.1007/s00300-005-0732-7. S2CID   19703780.
  36. ↑ ‘British man bitten by fur seal on South Georgia rescued’, BBC News, Retrieved 28 November 2015,
  37. ↑ Kouliev T, Cui V (2015). "Treatment and prevention of infection following bites of the Antarctic fur seal (Arctocephalus gazella)". Open Access Emergency Medicine. 7: 17–20. doi: 10.2147/OAEM.S75442 . PMC   4806802 . PMID   27147885.
  38. ↑ Tryland M, Nymo IH, Nielsen O, Nordøy ES, Kovacs KM, Krafft BA, Lydersen C (2012). "Serum chemistry and antibodies against pathogens in antarctic fur seals, Weddell seals, crabeater seals, and Ross seals". Journal of Wildlife Diseases. 48 (3): 632–645. doi: 10.7589/0090-3558-48.3.632 . PMID   22740529.
  39. ↑ Lavigne DM, Schmitz OJ (1990). "Global warming and increasing population densities: a prescription for seal plagues". Marine Pollution Bulletin. 21 (6): 280–284. Bibcode:1990MarPB..21..280L. doi:10.1016/0025-326X(90)90590-5. hdl: 2027.42/28544 .
  40. ↑ "CCAMLR Ecosystem Monitoring Program (CEMP)". CCAMLR. 24 March 2016.
  41. ↑ "Front | CITES". cites.org.

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