White meat

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Chicken is a widely consumed white meat. Chicken breasts and wing quarters.jpg
Chicken is a widely consumed white meat.

In culinary terms, white meat is meat which is pale in color before and after cooking. In traditional gastronomy, white meat also includes rabbit, the flesh of milk-fed young mammals (in particular veal and lamb), and sometimes pork. [1] [2] [3] [4] In ecotrophology and nutritional studies, white meat includes poultry and fish, but excludes all mammal flesh, which is considered red meat . [5]

Contents

Various factors have resulted in debate centering on the definition of white and red meat. Dark meat is used to describe darker-colored flesh. A common example is the lighter-colored meat of poultry (white meat), coming from the breast, as contrasted with darker-colored meat from the legs (dark meat). [6] Certain types of poultry that are sometimes grouped as white meat are red when raw, such as duck and goose. Some types of fish, such as tuna, sometimes are red when raw and turn white when cooked.

Terminology

The terms white, red, light and dark applied to meat have varied and inconsistent meanings in different contexts. [7] The term white meat in particular has caused confusion from oversimplification in scientific publications, misuse of the term in the popular press, and evolution of the term over decades. Some writers suggest avoiding the terms "red" and "white" altogether, instead classifying meat by objective characteristics such as myoglobin or heme iron content, lipid profile, fatty acid composition, cholesterol content, etc. [7]

In nutritional studies, white meat may also include land snails and amphibians like frogs. [8] [9] Mammal flesh (eg; beef, pork, goat, lamb, doe, rabbit) is excluded and considered to be red meat (although rabbit meat is sometimes considered to be white meat). [5] Periodically some researchers allow lean cuts of rabbit to be an outlier and categorize it into the “white meat” category because it shares certain nutritional similarities with poultry. [9] [10] [11] Otherwise, nutritional studies and social studies popularly define "red meat" as coming from any mammal, "seafood" as coming from fish and shellfish, and "white meat" coming from birds and other animals. [12] [13] Some entomologists have referred to edible insects as "the next white meat". [14]

The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) typically classifies red meat, poultry, and seafood as their own separate categories. [15] The USDA considers all livestock animals (including beef, veal, pork) to be "red meat” because their muscles contain enough myoglobin that their fresh meat is deep red in color prior to being cooked. Poultry and seafood are not considered to be red meats because they contain less myoglobin. [16] The term white meat is used to describe poultry in particular; [17] [18] while this includes duck and geese, they are considered to be a dark meat. [19] Seafood is treated as a distinct product and not included as a type of meat by the USDA's FSIS. [20] The World Health Organization (WHO) distinguishes between white meat and seafood. [21]

Poultry

Within poultry, there are two types of meats—white and dark. The different colours are based on the different locations and uses of the muscles. White meat can be found within the breast of a chicken or turkey. Dark muscles are fit to develop endurance or long-term use, and contain more myoglobin than white muscles, allowing the muscle to use oxygen more efficiently for aerobic respiration. White meat contains large amounts of protein.

Dark meat contains 2.64 times more saturated fat than white meat, per gram of protein. [22] One commentator wrote that dark meat contains more vitamins, [23] while a New York Times columnist has stated the two meats are nearly identical in nutritional value, especially when compared with typical red meat. For ground-based birds like chicken and turkeys, dark meats occur in the legs, which are used to support the weight of the animals while they move. According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture, 28 grams (1 oz) of boneless, skinless turkey breast contains about one gram of fat, compared with roughly two grams of fat for 28 g (1 oz) of boneless, skinless thigh. [24] The numbers go up when the skin is kept in: a chicken thigh, with skin intact, has 13 grams of total fat and 3.5 grams of saturated fat per 85 g (3 oz) serving; this is about 20 percent of the recommended maximum daily intake. [25] Birds which use their chest muscles for sustained flight (such as geese and ducks) have dark meat throughout their bodies. [26]

Pork

Because of health concerns, meat producers have positioned pork as "white meat", taking advantage of the traditional gastronomic definition. The United States National Pork Board has marketed their product as "Pork. The Other White Meat".

In Israel, where Jewish dietary laws which forbid the consumption of pork are popularly practiced, "white meat" is the accepted euphemism for pork. [27]

Health effects

The health effects that correlate with white meat consumption have been studied as compared to red meat. [28] There is a decreased incidence of stroke. [28] Cancer Council Australia have stated that "there is not enough evidence to draw any conclusions on eating chicken, or other white meats and cancer risk". [29]

A 2022 review found that high white meat intake is associated with an increased risk of pancreatic cancer. [30] A 2023 meta-analysis found no association between white meat intake and cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes. [31]

There is additional evidence that myoglobin promotes carcinogenesis in colorectal models and therefore epidemiologic evidence supports reduced prevalence of colon cancer in those who consume white meat as opposed to red meat. [32]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Meat</span> Animal flesh eaten as food

Meat is animal tissue, often muscle, that is eaten as food. Humans have hunted and farmed other animals for meat since prehistory. The Neolithic Revolution allowed the domestication of animals, including chickens, sheep, goats, pigs, horses, and cattle, starting around 11,000 years ago. Since then, selective breeding has enabled farmers to produce meat with the qualities desired by producers and consumers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Poultry</span> Domesticated birds kept by humans for their eggs, meat, or feathers

Poultry are domesticated birds kept by humans for the purpose of harvesting animal products such as meat, eggs or feathers. The practice of raising poultry is known as poultry farming. These birds are most typically members of the superorder Galloanserae (fowl), especially the order Galliformes. The term also includes waterfowls of the family Anatidae but does not include wild birds hunted for food known as game or quarry.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Food pyramid (nutrition)</span> Visual representation of optimal servings from basic groups

A food pyramid is a representation of the optimal number of servings to be eaten each day from each of the basic food groups. The first pyramid was published in Sweden in 1974. The 1992 pyramid introduced by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) was called the "Food Guide Pyramid" or "Eating Right Pyramid". It was updated in 2005 to "MyPyramid", and then it was replaced by "MyPlate" in 2011.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mechanically separated meat</span> Paste-like meat product

Mechanically separated meat (MSM), mechanically recovered/reclaimed meat (MRM), or mechanically deboned meat (MDM) is a paste-like meat product produced by forcing pureed or ground beef, pork, mutton, turkey or chicken under high pressure through a sieve or similar device to separate the bone from the edible meat tissue. When poultry is used, it is sometimes called white slime as an analog to meat-additive pink slime and to meat extracted by advanced meat recovery systems, both of which are different processes. The process entails pureeing or grinding the carcass left after the manual removal of meat from the bones and then forcing the slurry through a sieve under pressure.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lunch meat</span> Precooked or cured meats that are sliced and served cold or hot

Lunch meats—also known as cold cuts, luncheon meats, cooked meats, sliced meats, cold meats, sandwich meats, delicatessens, and deli meats—are precooked or cured meats that are sliced and served cold or hot. They are typically served in sandwiches or on a tray. They can be purchased pre-sliced, usually in vacuum packs, or they can be sliced to order.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Plant-based diet</span> Diet consisting mostly or entirely of plant-based foods

A plant-based diet is a diet consisting mostly or entirely of plant-based foods. Plant-based diets encompass a wide range of dietary patterns that contain low amounts of animal products and high amounts of fiber-rich plant products such as vegetables, fruits, whole grains, legumes, nuts and seeds. They do not need to be vegan or vegetarian, but are defined in terms of low frequency of animal food consumption.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pancetta</span> Italian bacon made of pork belly meat

Pancetta is a salt-cured pork belly meat product in a category known as salume. In Italy, it is often used to add depth to soups and pastas.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Healthy diet</span> Type of diet

A healthy diet is a diet that maintains or improves overall health. A healthy diet provides the body with essential nutrition: fluid, macronutrients such as protein, micronutrients such as vitamins, and adequate fibre and food energy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Red meat</span> Meat which is red when raw, with high myoglobin content

In gastronomy, red meat is commonly red when raw, in contrast to white meat, which is pale in color before cooking. In culinary terms, only flesh from mammals or fowl is classified as red or white. In nutritional science, red meat is defined as any meat that has more of the protein myoglobin than white meat. White meat is defined as non-dark meat from fish or chicken.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Processed meat</span> Type of meat

Processed meat is considered to be any meat that has been modified in order to either improve its taste or to extend its shelf life. Methods of meat processing include salting, curing, fermentation, smoking, boiling, frying, and/or the addition of chemical preservatives. Processed meat is usually composed of pork or beef or, less frequently, poultry. It can also contain offal or meat by-products such as blood. Processed meat products include bacon, ham, sausages, salami, corned beef, jerky, hot dogs, lunch meat, canned meat, chicken nuggets, and meat-based sauces. Meat processing includes all the processes that change fresh meat with the exception of simple mechanical processes such as cutting, grinding or mixing.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Charcuterie</span> Branch of cooking of prepared meat products, primarily from pork

Charcuterie is a branch of French cuisine devoted to prepared meat products, such as bacon, ham, sausage, terrines, galantines, ballotines, pâtés, and confit, primarily from pork.

A reconstituted meat, meat slurry, or emulsified meat is a liquefied meat product that contains fewer fats, pigments and less myoglobin than unprocessed dark meats. Meat slurry is more malleable than dark meats and eases the process of meat distribution as pipelines may be used.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chicken as food</span> Type of meat

Chicken is the most common type of poultry in the world. Owing to the relative ease and low cost of raising chickens—in comparison to mammals such as cattle or hogs—chicken meat and chicken eggs have become prevalent in numerous cuisines.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Curing (food preservation)</span> Food preservation and flavouring processes based on drawing moisture out of the food by osmosis

Curing is any of various food preservation and flavoring processes of foods such as meat, fish and vegetables, by the addition of salt, with the aim of drawing moisture out of the food by the process of osmosis. Because curing increases the solute concentration in the food and hence decreases its water potential, the food becomes inhospitable for the microbe growth that causes food spoilage. Curing can be traced back to antiquity, and was the primary method of preserving meat and fish until the late 19th century. Dehydration was the earliest form of food curing. Many curing processes also involve smoking, spicing, cooking, or the addition of combinations of sugar, nitrate, and nitrite.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Western pattern diet</span> Modern dietary pattern

The Western pattern diet is a modern dietary pattern that is generally characterized by high intakes of pre-packaged foods, refined grains, red meat, processed meat, high-sugar drinks, candy and sweets, fried foods, industrially produced animal products, butter and other high-fat dairy products, eggs, potatoes, corn, and low intakes of fruits, vegetables, whole grains, pasture-raised animal products, fish, nuts, and seeds.

The Dietary Guidelines for Americans (DGA) provide nutritional advice for Americans who are healthy or who are at risk for chronic disease but do not currently have chronic disease. The Guidelines are published every five years by the US Department of Agriculture, together with the US Department of Health and Human Services. Notably, the most recent ninth edition for 2020–25 includes dietary guidelines for children from birth to 23 months. In addition to the Dietary Guidelines per se, there are additional tools for assessing diet and nutrition, including the Healthy Eating Index (HEI), which can be used to assess the quality of a given selection of foods in the context of the Dietary Guidelines. Also provided are additional explanations regarding customization of the Guidelines to individual eating preferences, application of the Guidelines during pregnancy and infancy, the USDA Nutrition Evidence Systematic Review, information about the Nutrition Communicators Network and the MyPlate initiative, information from the National Academies about redesigning the process by which the Dietary Guidelines for Americans are created, and information about dietary guidelines from other nations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Eggs as food</span> Edible animal product

Humans and their hominid relatives have consumed eggs for millions of years. The most widely consumed eggs are those of fowl, especially chickens. People in Southeast Asia began harvesting chicken eggs for food by 1500 BCE. Eggs of other birds, such as ducks and ostriches, are eaten regularly but much less commonly than those of chickens. People may also eat the eggs of reptiles, amphibians, and fish. Fish eggs consumed as food are known as roe or caviar.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pork</span> Meat from a pig

Pork is the culinary name for the meat of the pig. It is the most commonly consumed meat worldwide, with evidence of pig husbandry dating back to 5000 BCE.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Heterocyclic amine formation in meat</span>

Heterocyclic amines are a group of chemical compounds, many of which can be formed during cooking. They are found in meats that are cooked to the "well done" stage, in pan drippings and in meat surfaces that show a brown or black crust. Epidemiological studies show associations between intakes of heterocyclic amines and cancers of the colon, rectum, breast, prostate, pancreas, lung, stomach, and esophagus, and animal feeding experiments support a causal relationship. The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Public Health Service labeled several heterocyclic amines as likely carcinogens in its 13th Report on Carcinogens. Changes in cooking techniques reduce the level of heterocyclic amines.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ground turkey</span>

Ground turkey, or minced turkey, is a mixture of dark and light turkey meat with remaining skin and visible fat processed together until a "ground" form emerges. The turkey meat, skin, and fat is taken off the bone and processed with additives. The final product has specific characteristics that appeal to customers, including a non pink color and non crumbly texture. The composition of ground turkey is driven by market demand, availability, and meat prices. The majority of ground turkey is made from excess thighs and drumsticks rather than the more costly breast meat. Ground turkey is a common low-fat alternative for ground beef.

References

  1. ↑ Larousse Gastronomique, 1961, s.v. pork
  2. ↑ Evan Goldstein, Joyce Goldstein, Perfect Pairings: A Master Sommelier's Practical Advice for Partnering Wine with Food, ISBN   0520243773, 2006, p. 109: "White meats such as pork and veal are also excellent table companions for Gewürz..."
  3. ↑ Pierre Paillon, Secrets of Good French Cooking, ISBN   0471160628, 1996, p. 95: "White meats (veal and pork) and poultry should be cooked "medium"..."
  4. ↑ Elisabeth Rozin, The Primal Cheeseburger: A Generous Helping of Food History Served On a Bun, ISBN   0140178430 1994, p. 19: "Beef and lamb are clearly red meats, while veal and rabbit are white meats; the white meat category has been generalized to include the flesh of poultry and fish as well."
  5. 1 2 "USDA-Safety of Fresh Pork...from Farm to Table". Fsis.usda.gov. 2008-05-16. Retrieved 2009-09-16.
  6. ↑ "Science of Meat: What Gives Meat its Color? | Exploratorium". Archived from the original on 2016-03-12. Retrieved 2014-08-18.
  7. 1 2 Keeton, Jimmy T.; Dikeman, Michael E. (2017-10-01). "'Red' and 'white' meats—terms that lead to confusion". Animal Frontiers. 7 (4): 29–33. doi: 10.2527/af.2017.0440 .
  8. ↑ Oliveira, Lillian Paranhos Laurindo de; Seixas Filho, José Teixeira de; Pereira, Marcelo Maia; Mello, Silvia Conceição Reis Pereira (2017). "Frog meat in special diets: potential for use as a functional food". Boletim do Instituto de Pesca. 43: 99–106. doi: 10.20950/1678-2305.2017.99.106 .
  9. 1 2 Lippi, Giuseppe; Mattiuzzi, Camilla; Cervellin, Gianfranco (January 2016). "Meat consumption and cancer risk: a critical review of published meta-analyses". Critical Reviews in Oncology/Hematology. 97: 1–14. doi:10.1016/j.critrevonc.2015.11.008. ISSN   1879-0461. PMID   26633248.
  10. ↑ Kim, Seong Rae; Kim, Kyuwoong; Lee, Sang Ah; Kwon, Sung Ok; Lee, Jong-Koo; Keum, NaNa; Park, Sang Min (2019-04-11). "Effect of Red, Processed, and White Meat Consumption on the Risk of Gastric Cancer: An Overall and Dose–Response Meta-Analysis". Nutrients. 11 (4): 826. doi: 10.3390/nu11040826 . ISSN   2072-6643. PMC   6520977 . PMID   30979076.
  11. ↑ Becerra-Tomás, Nerea; Babio, Nancy; Martínez-González, Miguel Ángel; Corella, Dolores; Estruch, Ramon; Ros, Emilio; Fitó, Montserrat; Serra-Majem, Lluís; Salaverria, Itziar; Lamuela-Raventós, Rosa M.; Lapetra, José (2016-12-01). "Replacing red meat and processed red meat for white meat, fish, legumes or eggs is associated with lower risk of incidence of metabolic syndrome". Clinical Nutrition. 35 (6): 1442–1449. doi:10.1016/j.clnu.2016.03.017. hdl: 10230/28278 . ISSN   0261-5614. PMID   27087650.
  12. ↑ Touvier, Mathilde; Kesse-Guyot, Emmanuelle; Méjean, Caroline; Estaquio, Carla; Péneau, Sandrine; Hercberg, Serge; Castetbon, Katia (2010). "Variations in Compliance with Recommendations and Types of Meat/Seafood/Eggs according to Sociodemographic and Socioeconomic Categories" . Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism. 56 (1): 65–73. doi:10.1159/000271469. ISSN   0250-6807. PMID   20051683. S2CID   20787103.
  13. ↑ Hayley, Alexa; Zinkiewicz, Lucy; Hardiman, Kate (2015-01-01). "Values, attitudes, and frequency of meat consumption. Predicting meat-reduced diet in Australians" . Appetite. 84: 98–106. doi:10.1016/j.appet.2014.10.002. ISSN   0195-6663. PMID   25312749. S2CID   29746970.
  14. ↑ Yates-Doerr, Emily (2012). "Meeting the demand for meat?". Anthropology Today. 28 (1): 11–15. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8322.2012.00849.x . ISSN   1467-8322.
  15. ↑ "USDA ERS - U.S. Per Capita Availability of Red Meat, Poultry, and Seafood on the Rise". www.ers.usda.gov. Retrieved 2021-03-01.
  16. ↑ "Fresh Pork from Farm to Table". United States Department of Agriculture.
  17. ↑ "The color of meat and poultry".
  18. ↑ "Food standards and labeling policy book" (PDF).
  19. ↑ "Duck and Goose from Farm to Table". fsis.usda.gov. Food Safety and Inspection Service. Retrieved 15 March 2023.
  20. ↑ "Meat preparation".
  21. ↑ "Healthy diet: Keys to eating well". www.who.int. Retrieved 2021-03-01.
  22. ↑ "Dark Meat Versus White Meat: What's The Difference" . Retrieved 2012-02-20.
  23. ↑ "Come To The Dark Side Of The Chicken; It's Tastier". NPR . Retrieved 2011-02-26.
  24. ↑ Anahead O'Connor, "Really? The Claim: White Meat Is Healthier Than Dark Meat" Archived April 6, 2016, at the Wayback Machine in the New York Times, 20 Nov 2007.
  25. ↑ "The Nutrition of Chicken Breasts Vs. Thighs". healthyeating.sfgate.com. Retrieved 22 June 2016.
  26. ↑ Article on the color of turkey and chicken meat Archived January 27, 2007, at the Wayback Machine
  27. ↑ "Mexican Flu: The Other White Meat : On Language". The Jewish Daily Forward. 6 May 2009. Retrieved 14 September 2009.
  28. 1 2 Kim, K; Hyeon, J; Lee, SA; Kwon, SO; Lee, H; Keum, N; Lee, JK; Park, SM (30 August 2017). "Role of Total, Red, Processed, and White Meat Consumption in Stroke Incidence and Mortality: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Prospective Cohort Studies". Journal of the American Heart Association. 6 (9). doi:10.1161/JAHA.117.005983. PMC   5634267 . PMID   28855166.
  29. ↑ "Meat and Cancer Risk". cancer.org.au. Retrieved 26 January 2024.
  30. ↑ Gao Y, Ma Y, Yu M, Li G, Chen Y, Li X, Chen X, Xie Y, Wang X. (2022). "Poultry and Fish Intake and Pancreatic Cancer Risk: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis". Nutr Cancer. 74 (1): 55–67. doi:10.1080/01635581.2020.1869276. PMID   33432844.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  31. ↑ Ramel A, Nwaru BI, Lamberg-Allardt C, Thorisdottir B, Bärebring L, Söderlund F, Arnesen EK, Dierkes J, Åkesson A. (2023). "White meat consumption and risk of cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis". Food Nutr Res. 28: 67. doi:10.29219/fnr.v67.9543. PMC   10770644 . PMID   38187786.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  32. ↑ Bastide, Nadia M.; Pierre, Fabrice H. F.; Corpet, Denis E. (2011-02-01). "Heme Iron from Meat and Risk of Colorectal Cancer: A Meta-analysis and a Review of the Mechanisms Involved" (PDF). Cancer Prevention Research. 4 (2): 177–184. doi: 10.1158/1940-6207.CAPR-10-0113 . ISSN   1940-6207. PMID   21209396.
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