Fungiculture

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Fungiculture is the cultivation of fungi such as mushrooms. Cultivating fungi can yield foods (which include mostly mushrooms), medicine, construction materials and other products. A mushroom farm is involved in the business of growing fungi.

Contents

The word is also commonly used to refer to the practice of cultivation of fungi by animals such as leafcutter ants, termites, ambrosia beetles, and marsh periwinkles.

Overview

As fungi, mushrooms require different conditions than plants for optimal growth. Plants develop through photosynthesis, a process that converts atmospheric carbon dioxide into carbohydrates, especially cellulose. While sunlight provides an energy source for plants, mushrooms derive all of their energy and growth materials from their growth medium, through biochemical decomposition processes. This does not mean that light is an irrelevant requirement, since some fungi use light as a signal for fruiting. [1] [2] However, all the materials for growth must already be present in the growth medium. Mushrooms grow well at relative humidity levels of around 95–100%, and substrate moisture levels of 50 to 75%. [1]

Instead of seeds, mushrooms reproduce through spores. Spores can be contaminated with airborne microorganisms, which will interfere with mushroom growth and prevent a healthy crop.

Mycelium, or actively growing mushroom culture, is placed on a substrate—usually sterilized grains such as rye or millet—and induced to grow into those grains. This is called inoculation. Inoculated grains (or plugs) are referred to as spawn. Spores are another inoculation option, but are less developed than established mycelium. Since they are also contaminated easily, they are only manipulated in laboratory conditions with a laminar flow cabinet.

Techniques

All mushroom growing techniques require the correct combination of humidity, temperature, substrate (growth medium) and inoculum (spawn or starter culture). Wild harvests, outdoor log inoculation and indoor trays all provide these elements.

Outdoor logs

Cultivated shiitake mushrooms Cultivo tradicional de shiitake en Pradejon.jpg
Cultivated shiitake mushrooms

Mushrooms can be grown on logs placed outdoors in stacks or piles, as has been done for hundreds of years. [3] Sterilization is not performed as part of this method. Since production may be unpredictable and seasonal, less than 5% of commercially sold mushrooms are produced this way. [4] Here, tree logs are inoculated with spawn, then allowed to grow as they would in wild conditions. Fruiting, or pinning, is triggered by seasonal changes, or by briefly soaking the logs in cool water. [3] Shiitake and oyster mushrooms have traditionally been produced using the outdoor log technique, although controlled techniques such as indoor tray growing or artificial logs made of compressed substrate have been substituted. [4] [5] [6]

Shiitake mushrooms that are grown under a forested canopy are considered non-timber forest products. [7] In the Northeastern United States, shiitake mushrooms can be cultivated on a variety of hardwood logs including oak, American beech, sugar maple and hophornbeam. Softwood should not be used to cultivate shiitake mushrooms because the resin of softwoods will oftentimes inhibit the growth of the shiitake mushroom making it impractical as a growing substrate. [8]

To produce shiitake mushrooms, 1 metre (3-foot) hardwood logs with a diameter ranging between 10–15 cm (4–6 in) are inoculated with the mycelium of the shiitake fungus. Inoculation is completed by drilling holes in hardwood logs, filling the holes with cultured shiitake mycelium or inoculum, and then sealing the filled holes with hot wax. After inoculation, the logs are placed under the closed canopy of a coniferous stand and are left to incubate for 12 to 15 months. Once incubation is complete, the logs are soaked in water for 24 hours. Seven to ten days after soaking, shiitake mushrooms will begin to fruit and can be harvested once fully ripe. [9]

Indoor trays

Indoor mushroom cultivation for the purpose of producing a commercial crop was first developed in caves in France. The caves provided a stable environment (temperature, humidity) all year round. The technology for a controlled growth medium and fungal spawn was brought to the UK in the late 1800s in caves created by quarrying near areas such as Bath, Somerset. [10] Growing indoors allows the ability to control light, temperature and humidity while excluding contaminants and pests. This enables consistent production, regulated by spawning cycles. [11] By the mid-twentieth century this was typically accomplished in windowless, purpose-built buildings, for large-scale commercial production.

Indoor tray growing is the most common commercial technique, followed by containerized growing. The tray technique provides the advantages of scalability and easier harvesting.

There are a series of stages in the farming of the most widely used commercial mushroom species Agaricus bisporus . These are composting, fertilizing, spawning, casing, pinning, and cropping." [12] [13]

Six phases of mushroom cultivation

PhaseTime spanTemperatureProcess(procedure)
1. Phase I composting6–14 days [12] Regulate water and NH3 content through microbial action.

Add fertilizer / additives

2. Phase II composting or pasteurization7–18 days via composting method, ~2 hours for pasteurization (heat sterilization) [13] Reduce number of potentially harmful microbes through further composting, or apply heat sterilization.

Remove unwanted NH3.

3. Spawning and growth14–21 days [13] 24 to 27 °C (75 to 80 °F); must be above 23 °C (74 °F); for rapid growth. [12]

Must be below 27 to 29 °C (80 to 85 °F) to avoid damaging mycelia [13]

Add starter culture.

Allow mycelium to grow through substrate and form a colony.

Depends on substrate dimensions and composition.

Finished when mycelium has propagated through entire substrate layer

4. Casing13–20 daysPromote the formation of primordia, or mushroom pins.

Add a top covering or dressing to the colonized substrate.

Fertilizing with nitrogen increases yields.

Induces pinning

5. Pinning18–21 days [12] Earliest formation of recognizable mushrooms from mycelium.

Adjusting temperature, humidity and CO2 will also affect the number of pins, and mushroom size

6. CroppingRepeated over 7- to 10-day cycles [13] Harvest

Complete sterilization is not required or performed during composting. In most cases, a pasteurization step is included to allow some beneficial microorganisms to remain in the growth substrate. [12]

Specific time spans and temperatures required during stages 3–6 will vary respective to species and variety. Substrate composition and the geometry of growth substrate will also affect the ideal times and temperatures.

Pinning is the trickiest part for a mushroom grower, since a combination of carbon dioxide (CO2) concentration, temperature, light, and humidity triggers mushrooms towards fruiting. [1] [2] [12] Up until the point when rhizomorphs or mushroom "pins" appear, the mycelium is an amorphous mass spread throughout the growth substrate, unrecognizable as a mushroom.

Carbon dioxide concentration becomes elevated during the vegetative growth phase, when mycelium is sealed in a gas-resistant plastic barrier or bag which traps gases produced by the growing mycelium. To induce pinning, this barrier is opened or ruptured. CO2 concentration then decreases from about 0.08% to 0.04%, the ambient atmospheric level. [12]

Indoor oyster mushroom farming

A merchant selling oyster mushrooms that have been grown indoors Eco Fair 2019 Mushrooms.jpg
A merchant selling oyster mushrooms that have been grown indoors

Oyster mushroom farming is rapidly expanding around many parts of the world. Oyster mushrooms are grown in substrate that comprises sterilized wheat, paddy straw and even used coffee grounds, [14] and they do not require much space compared to other crops. The per unit production and profit extracted is comparatively higher than other crops. [15] Oyster mushrooms can also be grown indoors from kits, most commonly in the form of a box containing growing medium with spores. [16] [17]

Substrates

Mushroom production converts the raw natural ingredients into mushroom tissue, most notably the carbohydrate chitin. [1]

An ideal substrate will contain enough nitrogen and carbohydrate for rapid mushroom growth. Common bulk substrates include several of the following ingredients: [11] [13]

Mushrooms metabolize complex carbohydrates in their substrate into glucose, which is then transported through the mycelium as needed for growth and energy. While it is used as a main energy source, its concentration in the growth medium should not exceed 2%. For ideal fruiting, closer to 1% is ideal. [1]

Pests and diseases

Parasitic insects, bacteria and other fungi all pose risks to indoor production. Sciarid or phorid flies may lay eggs in the growth medium, which hatch into maggots and damage developing mushrooms during all growth stages. Bacterial blotch caused by Pseudomonas bacteria or patches of Trichoderma green mold also pose a risk during the fruiting stage. Pesticides and sanitizing agents are available to use against these infestations. [11] [22] Biological controls for sciarid and phorid flies have also been proposed. [23]

Trichoderma green mold can affect mushroom production, for example in the mid-1990s in Pennsylvania leading to significant crop losses. The contaminating fungus originated from poor hygiene by workers and poorly prepared growth substrates. [24]

Mites in the genus Histiostoma have been found in mushroom farms. Histiostoma gracilipes feeds on mushrooms directly, while H. heinemanni is suspected to spread diseases. [25] [26]

Commercially cultivated fungi

Home-cultivated shiitake developing over approximately 24 hours Shiitake growing s.jpg
Home-cultivated shiitake developing over approximately 24 hours
Harvesting Pleurotus ostreatus, cultivated using spawns embedded in sawdust mixture placed in plastic containers Harvestingoystermushroomcultivatedinbaggedsawdustmixture.jpg
Harvesting Pleurotus ostreatus , cultivated using spawns embedded in sawdust mixture placed in plastic containers
Details of the gill structure of the edible oyster mushroom Pleurotus ostreatus Pleurotus ostreatus Eglinton.JPG
Details of the gill structure of the edible oyster mushroom Pleurotus ostreatus

Production regions in North America

Pennsylvania is the top-producing mushroom state in the United States, and celebrates September as "Mushroom Month". [28]

The borough of Kennett Square is a historical and present leader in mushroom production. It currently leads production of Agaricus-type mushrooms, [29] followed by California, Florida and Michigan. [30]

Other mushroom-producing states: [31]

The lower Fraser Valley of British Columbia, which includes Vancouver, has a significant number of producers –about 60 as of 1998 –. [32]

Production in Europe

Oyster mushroom cultivation has taken off in Europe as of late. Many entrepreneurs nowadays find it as a quite profitable business, a start-up with a small investment and good profit. Italy with 785,000 tonnes and Netherlands with 307,000 tonnes are between the top ten mushroom producing countries in the world. The world's biggest producer of mushroom spawn [33] is also situated in France.

According to a research carried out on Production and Marketing of Mushrooms: Global and National Scenario [34] Poland, Netherlands, Belgium, Lithuania are the major exporting mushrooms countries in Europe and countries like UK, Germany, France, Russia are considered to be the major importing countries.[ citation needed ]

Education and training

Oyster mushroom cultivation is a sustainable business where different natural resources can be used as a substrate. The number of people becoming interested in this field is rapidly increasing. The possibility of creating a viable business in urban environments by using coffee grounds is appealing for many entrepreneurs.[ citation needed ]

Since mushroom cultivation is not a subject available at school, most urban farmers learned it by doing. The time to master mushroom cultivation is time consuming and costly in missed revenue. For this reason there are numerous companies in Europe specialized in mushroom cultivation that are offering training for entrepreneurs and organizing events to build community and share knowledge. They also show the potential positive impact of this business on the environment. [35] [36]

Courses about mushroom cultivation can be attended in many countries around Europe. There is education available for growing mushrooms on coffee grounds, [37] [38] more advanced training for larger scale farming, [39] spawn production and lab work [40] and growing facilities. [41]

Events are organised with different intervals. The Mushroom Learning Network gathers once a year in Europe. The International Society for Mushroom Science gathers once every five-years somewhere in the world.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mushroom</span> Spore-bearing fruiting body of a fungus

A mushroom or toadstool is the fleshy, spore-bearing fruiting body of a fungus, typically produced above ground, on soil, or on its food source. Toadstool generally denotes one poisonous to humans.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mycelium</span> Vegetative part of a fungus

Mycelium is a root-like structure of a fungus consisting of a mass of branching, thread-like hyphae. Its normal form is that of branched, slender, entangled, anastomosing, hyaline threads. Fungal colonies composed of mycelium are found in and on soil and many other substrates. A typical single spore germinates into a monokaryotic mycelium, which cannot reproduce sexually; when two compatible monokaryotic mycelia join and form a dikaryotic mycelium, that mycelium may form fruiting bodies such as mushrooms. A mycelium may be minute, forming a colony that is too small to see, or may grow to span thousands of acres as in Armillaria.

<i>Psilocybe cubensis</i> Species of fungus

Psilocybe cubensis, commonly known as the magic mushroom, shroom, golden halo, golden teacher, cube, or gold cap, is a species of psilocybin mushroom of moderate potency whose principal active compounds are psilocybin and psilocin. It belongs to the fungus family Hymenogastraceae and was previously known as Stropharia cubensis. It is the best-known psilocybin mushroom due to its wide distribution and ease of cultivation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Shiitake</span> Species of edible mushroom

The shiitake is an edible mushroom native to East Asia, which is cultivated and consumed around the globe.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Edible mushroom</span> Edible fungi fruit bodies

Edible mushrooms are the fleshy fruit bodies of several species of macrofungi. Edibility may be defined by criteria including the absence of poisonous effects on humans and desirable taste and aroma. Mushrooms that have a particularly desirable taste are described as "choice". Edible mushrooms are consumed for their nutritional and culinary value. Mushrooms, especially dried shiitake, are sources of umami flavor.

<i>Agaricus bisporus</i> Species of fungus

Agaricus bisporus, commonly known as the cultivated mushroom, is a basidiomycete mushroom native to grasslands in Eurasia and North America. It is cultivated in more than 70 countries and is one of the most commonly and widely consumed mushrooms in the world. It has two color states while immature – white and brown – both of which have various names, with additional names for the mature state, such as chestnut, portobello, portabellini, button and champignon de Paris.

<i>Armillaria mellea</i> Species of fungus

Armillaria mellea, commonly known as honey fungus, is an edible basidiomycete fungus in the genus Armillaria. It is a plant pathogen and part of a cryptic species complex of closely related and morphologically similar species. It causes Armillaria root rot in many plant species and produces mushrooms around the base of trees it has infected. The symptoms of infection appear in the crowns of infected trees as discoloured foliage, reduced growth, dieback of the branches and death. The mushrooms are edible but some people may be intolerant to them. This species is capable of producing light via bioluminescence in its mycelium.

<i>Flammulina filiformis</i> Species of edible mushroom

Flammulina filiformis is a species of edible agaric in the family Physalacriaceae. It is widely cultivated in East Asia, and well known for its role in Korean, Japanese and Chinese cuisine. Until recently, the species was considered to be conspecific with the European Flammulina velutipes, but DNA sequencing has shown that the two are distinct.

<i>Pleurotus ostreatus</i> Species of fungus

Pleurotus ostreatus, the oyster mushroom, oyster fungus, hiratake, or pearl oyster mushroom is a common edible mushroom. It is one of the more commonly sought wild mushrooms, though it can also be cultivated on straw and other media.

<i>Pleurotus eryngii</i> Species of edible musroom

Pleurotus eryngii is an edible mushroom native to Mediterranean regions of Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa, but also grown in many parts of Asia.

<i>Pleurotus</i> Genus of fungi

Pleurotus is a genus of gilled mushrooms which includes one of the most widely eaten mushrooms, P. ostreatus. Species of Pleurotus may be called oyster, abalone, or tree mushrooms, and are some of the most commonly cultivated edible mushrooms in the world. Pleurotus fungi have also been used in mycoremediation of pollutants, such as petroleum and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sclerotium</span> Mycelial mass

A sclerotium is a compact mass of hardened fungal mycelium containing food reserves. One role of sclerotia is to survive environmental extremes. In some higher fungi such as ergot, sclerotia become detached and remain dormant until favorable growth conditions return. Sclerotia initially were mistaken for individual organisms and described as separate species until Louis René Tulasne proved in 1853 that sclerotia are only a stage in the life cycle of some fungi. Further investigation showed that this stage appears in many fungi belonging to many diverse groups. Sclerotia are important in the understanding of the life cycle and reproduction of fungi, as a food source, as medicine, and in agricultural blight management.

<i>Hericium erinaceus</i> Edible mushroom

Hericium erinaceus, commonly known as lion's mane mushroom, yamabushitake, bearded tooth fungus, or bearded hedgehog, is an edible mushroom belonging to the tooth fungus group. Native to North America, Europe, and Asia, it can be identified by its long spines, occurrence on hardwoods, and tendency to grow a single clump of dangling spines. The fruit bodies can be harvested for culinary use.

<i>Pleurotus pulmonarius</i> Species of mushroom

Pleurotus pulmonarius, commonly known as the Indian oyster, Italian oyster, phoenix mushroom, or the lung oyster, is a mushroom very similar to Pleurotus ostreatus, the pearl oyster, but with a few noticeable differences. The caps of pulmonarius are much paler and smaller than ostreatus and develops more of a stem. P. pulmonarius also prefers warmer weather than ostreatus and will appear later in the summer. Otherwise, the taste and cultivation of the two species is generally described as largely the same. Another similar species, North America's Pleurotus populinus, is restricted to growing on aspen and cottonwood.

<i>Pleurotus djamor</i> Species of fungus

Pleurotus djamor, commonly known as the pink oyster mushroom, is a species of fungus in the family Pleurotaceae.

<i>Tuber melanosporum</i> Black truffle

Tuber melanosporum, called the black truffle,Périgord truffle or French black truffle, is a species of truffle native to Southern Europe. It is one of the most expensive edible fungi in the world. In 2013, the truffle cost between 1,000 and 2,000 euros per kilogram.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Verticillium dry bubble</span> Species of fungus

Verticillium dry bubble, recently named Lecanicillium fungicola, is a mycoparasite that attacks white button mushrooms, among other hosts, during its generative period. L. fungicola infects the casing layer on the cap structure of several edible mushrooms. This fungal pathogen does not typically infect wild mushrooms, but more commonly cultivated mushrooms are infected such as A. bisporus, which are typically grown in large quantities. Severity of disease depends on several factors, including timing of infection and environmental conditions. Dry bubble follows the typical verticillium life cycle, although insect vectors play a large role in the spread of this disease. Control for L. fungicola is limited, and strict measures must be taken to prevent the spread of infection. L. fungicola is a devastating pathogen in the mushroom industry and causes significant losses in the commercial production of its main host A. bisporus. Annual costs for mushroom growers are estimated at 2–4% of total revenue.

<i>Pleurotus cornucopiae</i> Species of fungus

Pleurotus cornucopiae is a species of edible fungus in the genus Pleurotus, It is quite similar to the better-known Pleurotus ostreatus, and like that species is cultivated and sold in markets in Europe and China, but it is distinguished because its gills are very decurrent, forming a network on the stem.

<i>Hypsizygus ulmarius</i> Species of mushroom-forming fungus

Hypsizygus ulmarius, also known as the elm oyster mushroom, and less commonly as the elm leech, elm Pleurotus, is an edible fungus. It has often been confused with oyster mushrooms in the Pleurotus genus but can be differentiated easily as the gills are either not decurrent or not deeply decurrent. While not quite as common as true oyster mushrooms, they have a wide range globally in temperate forests. The mushrooms and vegetative hyphae of this species have been studied in recent years for their potential benefits to human health, and mycoremediation.

Mushroom spawn is a substrate that already has mycelium growing on it.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 Chang, Shu-Ting; Chang, S.; Miles, P.G. (2004). Mushrooms, Cultivation, Nutritional Value, Medicinal Effect, and Environmental Impact. CRC Press. pp. 15, 17, 69, 73, 139. ISBN   0-8493-1043-1.
  2. 1 2 Bratkovich, Stephen M. "Shiitake Mushroom Production: Fruiting, Harvesting and Crop Storage". Archived from the original on 20 March 2001.
  3. 1 2 "Cultivating mushrooms in natural logs". Global Village Institute. 2001 [1998]. Archived from the original on 25 December 2007.
  4. 1 2 Hill, Deborah B. "Introduction to Shiitake: The "Forest" Mushroom" (PDF). Kentucky Shiitake Production Workbook. University of Kentucky College of Agriculture, Food, and Environment. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 February 2012.
  5. ↑ Davis, Jeanine M. "Producing Shiitake Mushrooms: A Guide For Small-Scale Outdoor Cultivation on Logs" (PDF). North Carolina Cooperative Extension Service. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 May 2013.
  6. ↑ "Shiitake and Oyster Mushrooms" (PDF). Cooperative Extension Service. University of Kentucky College of Agriculture, Food, and Environment. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 March 2016.
  7. ↑ Mudge, Kenneth. "Forest Farming". The Magazine of the Arnold Arboretum. 67: 26–35.
  8. ↑ Bruhn, J.N.; Mihail J.D. (2009). "Forest farming of shiitake mushrooms: Aspects of forced fruiting". Bioresource Technology. 100 (23): 5973–5978. Bibcode:2009BiTec.100.5973B. doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2009.01.079. PMID   19608411.
  9. ↑ Leatham, Gary F. (1981). "Cultivation of shiitake, the japanese forest mushroom, on logs: A potential industry for the united states" (PDF). Forest Products Journal. 32 (8).
  10. ↑ "Mushroom cultivation underground". Bradford on Avon Museum. Retrieved 31 March 2022.
  11. 1 2 3 "Crop Profile for Mushrooms in Pennsylvania". January 1999. Archived from the original on 27 December 2007. Retrieved 31 December 2007.
  12. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Royse, Daniel J.; Beelman, Robert B. "Six Steps to Mushroom Farming". mushroomspawn.cas.psu.edu. Penn State Department of Plant Pathology and Environmental Microbiology. Archived from the original on 19 June 2010.
  13. 1 2 3 4 5 6 "Basic Procedures for Agaricus Mushroom Growing" (PDF). College of Agricultural Sciences, Agricultural Research and Cooperative Extension. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 September 2007. Retrieved 31 December 2007.
  14. ↑ "Handleiding oesterzwammen kweken op koffiedik" [How to grow oyster mushrooms on coffee grounds]. zaailingen.com (in Dutch). 11 November 2018.
  15. ↑ "Indoor Oyster Mushroom farming, a livelihood diversification option for flood affected families". answers.practicalaction.org. Archived from the original on 19 August 2022. Retrieved 17 April 2019.
  16. ↑ Carson, Janet B. (19 December 2020). "Kit and caboodle – Gardening kits make for great gifts as we huddle indoors". Arkansas Online. Retrieved 20 January 2021.
  17. ↑ Fritsche, Sarah (23 April 2018). "Oakland's Back to the Roots bets big on indoor gardening" . San Francisco Chronicle. Archived from the original on 24 April 2018. Retrieved 20 January 2021.
  18. ↑ "Mushroom Cultivation Using Rice Straw As a Culture Media". Archived from the original on 31 March 2019. Retrieved 31 March 2019.
  19. ↑ Ergün Baysal; Hüseyin Peker; Mustafa Kemal Yalınkılıç; Ali Temiz (10 March 2003). "Cultivation of oyster mushroom on waste paper with some added supplementary materials". Bioresource Technology. 89 (1): 95–97. Bibcode:2003BiTec..89...95B. doi:10.1016/S0960-8524(03)00028-2. PMID   12676506.
  20. ↑ Salmones, D; Salmones D; Mata G; Waliszewski KN (March 2005). "Comparative culturing of Pleurotus spp. on coffee pulp and wheat straw: biomass production and substrate biodegradation". Bioresour Technol. 96 (5): 537–44. Bibcode:2005BiTec..96..537S. doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2004.06.019. PMID   15501659.
  21. ↑ Job D., D. (December 2004). "Use of coffee grounds for production of Pleurotus ostreatus". Revista iberoamericana de micologia. 21 (4): 195–7. PMID   15709800.
  22. ↑ "The Mushroom Growers' Information Site". 27 June 2007.
  23. ↑ Jess, S; Jess S; Bingham JF. (April 2004). "Biological control of sciarid and phorid pests of mushroom with predatory mites from the genus Hypoaspis". Bull Entomol Res. 94 (2): 159–67. doi:10.1079/ber2003286. PMID   15153298. S2CID   11318946.
  24. ↑ Beyer, D.M.; Wuest, P.J; Anderson, M.G. "Green mold of Mushrooms".
  25. ↑ Compton, C. C. (1 April 1935). "Factors Relating to the Control of the Mushroom Mite, Histiostoma Gracilipes Banks". Journal of Economic Entomology. 28 (2): 465–468. doi:10.1093/jee/28.2.465. ISSN   1938-291X.
  26. ↑ Hill, A.; Deahl, K. L. (1978). "Description And Life cycle Of A New Species Of Histiostoma (Acari Histiostomidae) Associated With Commercial Mushroom Production". Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington. 80: 317–329. ISSN   0013-8797.
  27. ↑ Phillips, Roger (2006), Mushrooms. Pub. McMilan, ISBN   0-330-44237-6. P. 266.
  28. ↑ "September is mushroom month in Pennsylvania".
  29. ↑ Shepphard, Tenopra M. "Mushroom Summary" (PDF).
  30. ↑ "Mushroom Industry Report (94003)".
  31. ↑ "Mushrooms" (PDF). Agricultural Statistics Board. NASS, USDA. August 2007.
  32. ↑ "Mushroom Waste Management Project Liquid Waste Management" (PDF). March 1998.
  33. ↑ "Sylvan Inc. – World's Largest Mushroom Spawn Producer – Spawn". sylvaninc.com. Retrieved 27 November 2016.
  34. ↑ Wakchaure, G C (1 February 2011). "Production and Marketing of Mushrooms: Global and National Scenario". ResearchGate. doi:10.13140/RG.2.1.5012.3682.
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  36. ↑ "PermaFungi | Eat – Grow – Learn". permafungi.be. Retrieved 15 December 2016.
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