Mycoprotein

Last updated November 03, 2024

Mycoprotein (lit. "protein from fungus"), also known as mycelium-based protein or fungal protein, is a form of single-cell protein derived from fungi for human consumption.^[1]

With that said, mycoprotein should neither be confused with mushroom-based products, as the part of fungi grown for mycoprotein is the vegetative growth of the fungi, called mycelium, which can be compared to the roots of the organism.^[4] Metaphorically, the mushroom and the mycelium are as similar as a fruit is to the roots of its tree.

The Market

History

The discovery of mycoprotein was a result of "The Green Protein Revolution"-inspired British scientists looking for a sustainable alternative protein that could offset the global crisis fueled by population growth, food shortage and greenhouse gas emissions. Dr Tim Finnigan, former Chief Scientific Officer at Marlow Foods, has previously described how these scientists collected over 3000 soil organisms around the world before discovering Fusarium venenatum : a micro fungus that grows in filaments (long thread-like cells) and effectively transforms starch into a fibrous, meat-like, and protein-rich ingredient. In 1985, almost 20 years later, Marlow Foods became the first company to launch mycoprotein-based products on the market under the brand name Quorn.^[1]

Today

With Quorn's patents lapsing and the increasing need for alternative proteins due to the growing world population, rising emissions, and water usage, numerous start-up companies worldwide have begun developing mycoprotein-based ingredients and products, often using new strains and innovative technologies. For example, the Swedish company Millow, along with the Scottish company ENOUGH, are developing mycoprotein ingredients. ENOUGH produces the mycoprotein ingredient ABUNDA, utilizing submerged fermentation methods, while Millow uses a dry fermentation method for its mycoprotein production. These companies focus on the business-to-business supply of their take on a mycoprotein ingredient. Other companies, such as Spanish Libre and American MyForest Foods, have instead chosen to launch mycoprotein-based products in retail, hence working business-to-consumer.^[3]^[5]

Production & Synthesis

The production of mycoprotein takes place in vats, like in beer production. The fungi are grown under aerobic conditions, to which nitrogen, carbon and essential vitamins and minerals are supplied. Carbon dioxide is drawn from the vat. In the case of F. venenatum, glucose is supplied for carbon and ammonia for nitrogen. Parameters such as stirring, pH and temperature are also essential for optimal growth.^[1]

At harvest, the fungus is washed and heat treated to reduce the ribonucleic acid (RNA) content according to safety regulations before undergoing further processing steps.^[1] Different flavors and tastes can be added to the mycoprotein to add variety.^[6]

A reproducible mutation occurs after 1,000 to 1,200 hours of cultivation in F. venenatum that greatly reduces the hypha length in the organism, which is considered unfavorable for production. Under normal conditions, this mutant strain will rapidly displace the parent strain. Replacing ammonia with nitrate as the source of nitrogen, or supplementing ammonium cultures with peptone, prevents this mutant strain from overtaking the product, but still allows development. Alternatively, the appearance of the mutant can be delayed by selection pressures such as nutrient concentrations or pH levels.^[7]

Sensory, Nutrition & Health

Due to the root-like structure of the mycelium, the texture and nutrition of mycoprotein is very different from those of plants, leading to the possibility of creating vegetarian and vegan friendly products with the fibrous texture of meat. As it is high in protein and fiber, and low in fat, cholesterol, sodium and sugar, the composition aligns with current dietary guidelines.^[1]^[8] This nutritional advantage, as mentioned in the United Nations Environment Programme (2023), is why several studies have shown that consumption of mycoprotein has been associated with several health benefits, such as improved blood levels of cholesterol and sugar. The mechanism that links fiber content and mycoprotein's effect on managing glycemia and insulinemia is not entirely understood, and often disputed by endocrinologists, but is known to decrease the rate of glucose absorption and insulin secretion, whilst lowering insulin peaks by mitigating the maximum limit an amount of insulin can process glucose.^[9] The majority of this benefit is widely believed to be down to the high protein content, which stimulates encretins and satiety; and the high fibre content which makes people feel fuller for longer.

Back in 2001, a review article published in the Food Technology Magazine summarized how a panel of experts evaluated the sustainability of mycoprotein (produced by Marlow Foods) for food use in the United States. During this evaluation, the protein quality was evaluated using both the FDA Protein Digestibility-Corrected Amino Acid Scoring (PDCAAS) as well as a human volunteer study. The evaluation showed that mycoprotein has an excellent pattern of amino acids, and a PDCAAS score of 0.91 based on an estimate of 78% digestibility, comparable to the scores of beef and soybean. In addition to this, the fatty acid pattern was concluded to be more similar to that of vegetable fat than animal fat, containing a low proportion of saturated fat and a high proportion of mono- and polyunsaturated fat.^[10]

Also mentioned in this review, as well as in more recent articles, is that mycoprotein contains no or very low levels of phytic acids (also known as phytates), which are notorious anti-nutrients present in many plant-based protein sources. This means that in contrast to most beans and legumes, consumption of mycoprotein does not inhibit the absorption of essential trace elements and minerals like iron, zinc, calcium, and manganese.^[10]^[11]

It has also been found that mycoprotein produced by F. venenatum can consist of up to 42% protein while the fungal β-glucan present may also function as a prebiotic, stimulating the growth of health associated bacteria in the lower gut.^[12]^[13]

The texture and taste of mycoprotein may vary as different producers use different strains of fungi to produce their unique protein. For example, Nature's Fynd, a company founded in Chicago 2021, produce their Fy Protein™ from Fusarium yellowstonensis (also known as Fusarium strain flavolapis or Fusarium oxysporum MK7), an extremophile discovered in Yellowstone National Park, whilst Meati Inc. since 2022 produces their MushroomRoot™ from Neurospora crassa based on patented research by the Better Meat Co.^[3]^[14]^[15]^[16] The texture and taste are also influenced by different downstream technology, i.e., the treatment after harvesting the vats. Mycoprotein produced by F. venenatum has, for example, been described as a pale yellow solid with a faint taste of mushrooms.^[17]

Allergies & Hypersensitivity

Hypersensitivity reactions caused by ingestion of mycoprotein is very rare, though it has previously occurred in people allergic to mold or other fungi.^[18]^[19] For most individuals, mycoprotein is safe to eat.^[1] The fact is that 72.4% of allergic reactions and 67.6% of the gastrointestinal reactions that have been reported after ingestion of a Quorn product occurred on an individual's first consumption of Quorn's products, which is an indication of cross-allergenicity with other antigens.^[20] There is, however, continual testing for concerns of allergic reactions, which can range from abdominal pain, nausea, and vomiting to severe asthmatic reactions, especially when crossed with inhaled mold spores.^[7]^[18]^[21]

A few but not all strains involved in mycoprotein production are known to produce mycotoxins in very low concentrations, amongst others some strains of F. venenatum, which in Quorn's case is prohibited by continuous testing every 6th production hour.^[1]Fusarium yellowstonensis, on the other hand, is an example of a strain that has been found to have low allergenic potential and no mycotoxins has been detectable.^[22]

Law, Legislation & Recognition

Although mycoprotein is considered a new generation of alternative protein, most microorganisms used to produce mycoprotein have been used for decades, some for centuries, and do not fall under the Novel Food Regulation in the European Union.^[23] Mycoprotein has been considered Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) by the Food and Drug Administration in the US since 2002.^[24]

However, looking across the globe, mycoprotein has still not been fully recognized as the sufficient protein source it is, despite its nutritional and sustainable benefits and advantages. An open access article was published in early 2022 on the topic of the lack of a global uniformity when it comes to Food-Based Dietary Guidelines (FBDG). The author, reviewed by Marlow Foods, points out that the global protein guidance tends to be dichotomous and exclusively focuses on comparing animal and plant proteins, resulting in alternative proteins, such as fungal proteins, being overlooked.^[8] Subsequently, the author calls for fungal protein to be included in the forthcoming EAT-Lancet 2.0 publication, due in 2024, and the Nordic Dietary Guidelines.^[8]^[25]^[26]

This article is certainly not the only call for acknowledgement of fungal protein. In 2022, several companies pioneering for food sustainability united to form a new trade association: The Fungi Protein Association (FPA). One of the purposes of the association is to united advocate for mycoprotein in public policy. The founding members of the association include previous mentioned companies such as Quorn, ENOUGH, Mycorena and Nature's Fynd, but also companies as The Better Meat Co. and Prime Roots.^[27] Two members of the FPA, Mycorena and Quorn, published in 2022 an open letter to urge the Nordic Nutrition Recommendations (NNR) committee to review their selection of recommended protein sources and recognize fungi-derived proteins in food-based dietary guidelines.^[28] The NNR committee responded by including fungi as a source of non-animal protein in their nutrition recommendations published in June 2023.^[26]

Environmental Impact

Several producers of mycoprotein have reported that production of mycoprotein has an environmental impact (including land-use, water consumption and carbon footprint) over 90% less than beef.^[3]^[29] Additionally, a study published in Nature 2022 found that replacing 20 percent of per-capita ruminant meat, such as beef, with fermentation derived microbial protein, such as mycoprotein, could cut global deforestation and carbon dioxide emissions by 50% in addition to lowering methane emissions. These numbers are under the assumption of consumer acceptance.^[30]

Related Research Articles

Vegetarian cuisine is based on food that meets vegetarian standards by not including meat and animal tissue products.

Mold health issues refer to the harmful health effects of molds and their mycotoxins. Approximately 47% of houses in the United States have substantial levels of mold, with over 85% of commercial and office buildings found to have water damage predictive of mold. As many as 21% of asthma cases may result from exposure to mold. Substantial and statistically significant increases in the risks of both respiratory infections and bronchitis have been associated with dampness in homes and the resulting mold.

A mold or mould is one of the structures that certain fungi can form. The dust-like, colored appearance of molds is due to the formation of spores containing fungal secondary metabolites. The spores are the dispersal units of the fungi. Not all fungi form molds. Some fungi form mushrooms; others grow as single cells and are called microfungi.

An allergen is an otherwise harmless substance that triggers an allergic reaction in sensitive individuals by stimulating an immune response.

Quorn is a brand of meat substitute products. Quorn originated in the UK and is sold primarily in Europe, but is available in 11 countries. The brand is owned by parent company Monde Nissin.

Dog food is specifically formulated food intended for consumption by dogs and other related canines. Dogs are considered to be omnivores with a carnivorous bias. They have the sharp, pointed teeth and shorter gastrointestinal tracts of carnivores, better suited for the consumption of meat than of vegetable substances, yet also have ten genes that are responsible for starch and glucose digestion, as well as the ability to produce amylase, an enzyme that functions to break down carbohydrates into simple sugars – something that obligate carnivores like cats lack. Dogs evolved the ability living alongside humans in agricultural societies, as they managed on scrap leftovers and excrement from humans.

A meat alternative or meat substitute, is a food product made from vegetarian or vegan ingredients, eaten as a replacement for meat. Meat alternatives typically approximate qualities of specific types of meat, such as mouthfeel, flavor, appearance, or chemical characteristics. Plant- and fungus-based substitutes are frequently made with soy, but may also be made from wheat gluten as in seitan, pea protein as in the Beyond Burger, or mycoprotein as in Quorn. Alternative protein foods can also be made by precision fermentation, where single cell organisms such as yeast produce specific proteins using a carbon source; as well as cultivated or laboratory grown, based on tissue engineering techniques. The ingredients of meat alternative include 50–80% water, 10–25% textured vegetable proteins, 4–20% non-textured proteins, 0–15% fat and oil, 3-10% flavors/spices, 1-5% binding agents and 0-0.5% coloring agents.

A mycotoxin is a toxic secondary metabolite produced by fungi and is capable of causing disease and death in both humans and other animals. The term 'mycotoxin' is usually reserved for the toxic chemical products produced by fungi that readily colonize crops.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Food allergy</span> Hypersensitivity reaction to a food

A food allergy is an abnormal immune response to food. The symptoms of the allergic reaction may range from mild to severe. They may include itchiness, swelling of the tongue, vomiting, diarrhea, hives, trouble breathing, or low blood pressure. This typically occurs within minutes to several hours of exposure. When the symptoms are severe, it is known as anaphylaxis. A food intolerance and food poisoning are separate conditions, not due to an immune response.

Fusarium is a large genus of filamentous fungi, part of a group often referred to as hyphomycetes, widely distributed in soil and associated with plants. Most species are harmless saprobes, and are relatively abundant members of the soil microbial community. Some species produce mycotoxins in cereal crops that can affect human and animal health if they enter the food chain. The main toxins produced by these Fusarium species are fumonisins and trichothecenes. Despite most species apparently being harmless, some Fusarium species and subspecific groups are among the most important fungal pathogens of plants and animals.

Fungiculture is the cultivation of fungi such as mushrooms. Cultivating fungi can yield foods, medicine, construction materials and other products. A mushroom farm is involved in the business of growing fungi.

Fusarium venenatum is a microfungus of the genus Fusarium that has a high protein content. One of its strains is used commercially for the production of the single cell protein mycoprotein Quorn.

Peanut allergy is a type of food allergy to peanuts. It is different from tree nut allergies, because peanuts are legumes and not true nuts. Physical symptoms of allergic reaction can include itchiness, hives, swelling, eczema, sneezing, asthma attack, abdominal pain, drop in blood pressure, diarrhea, and cardiac arrest. Anaphylaxis may occur. Those with a history of asthma are more likely to be severely affected.

Soy allergy is a type of food allergy. It is a hypersensitivity to ingesting compounds in soy, causing an overreaction of the immune system, typically with physical symptoms, such as gastrointestinal discomfort, respiratory distress, or a skin reaction. Soy is among the eight most common foods inducing allergic reactions in children and adults. It has a prevalence of about 0.3% in the general population.

Milk allergy is an adverse immune reaction to one or more proteins in cow's milk. Symptoms may take hours to days to manifest, with symptoms including atopic dermatitis, inflammation of the esophagus, enteropathy involving the small intestine and proctocolitis involving the rectum and colon. However, rapid anaphylaxis is possible, a potentially life-threatening condition that requires treatment with epinephrine, among other measures.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Protein (nutrient)</span> Nutrient for the human body

Proteins are essential nutrients for the human body. They are one of the building blocks of body tissue and can also serve as a fuel source. As a fuel, proteins provide as much energy density as carbohydrates: 4 kcal per gram; in contrast, lipids provide 9 kcal per gram. The most important aspect and defining characteristic of protein from a nutritional standpoint is its amino acid composition.

Human interactions with fungi include both beneficial uses, whether practical or symbolic, and harmful interactions such as when fungi damage crops, timber, food, or are pathogenic to animals.

Cats exposed to allergens may develop allergies or allergic reactions. Allergies tend to become evident and intensify over extended periods of time and can take years to develop. Some allergic diseases and allergies in cats include feline atopic dermatitis, flea allergy dermatitis, feline-mosquito hypersensitivity, and food-induced allergy. In the case of feline atopy, hypersensitivity to allergens is due to genetic predisposition. However, various allergies may arise due to environmental factors. Allergens, ingested, inhaled, or airborne, can be seasonal or non-seasonal, similar to allergies in humans. Suspected seasonal allergens include but are not limited to pollen, fleas, and mosquito bites; suspected non-seasonal allergens include but are not limited to plastic materials, food, dust, trees, and grass. After exposure to suspected allergens, symptoms may be immediate or delayed, arising within a few minutes to two hours. Symptoms can include both dermatological and gastrointestinal signs such as itchy skin, hair loss and excessive scratching. In cases of feline atopic dermatitis or atopy in cats, pruritic skin diseases may result; however, signs can also include miliary dermatitis, symmetrical alopecia, and lesions of the eosinophilic granuloma complex.

Hypoallergenic dog food diets are created for dogs that experience food-related allergies causing adverse effects to their physical health.Super Hypoallergenic is enzymatic hydrolyzed hypoallergenic ostrich protein. The molecules that usually become allergens are intact proteins or glycoproteins. Hypoallergenic dog food diets offer a variety of protein sources that are unique by using proteins that are not recognized by the dog's antibodies as being antigens, minimizing allergic reactions for example Ostrich meat, bones and sinews. Adding novel protein sources, such as novel meats that a dog or its ancestors have never been exposed to is one method. Novel proteins can also be created by chemically modifying well known protein sources using hydrolysis techniques, rendering proteins unrecognizable by the gastrointestinal tract. Not all antigens are specific to proteins, however, and it is possible for anything that the body ingests to become an allergen. Providing diets with a limited amount of ingredients can be used for diagnostic purposes, as well as for dogs who are allergic to the common ingredients that are used in pet food. Certain nutrients are commonly incorporated into hypoallergenic dog food to help alleviate the symptoms of an allergic reaction. These ingredients include omega-3 fatty acids, Vitamins A and E, zinc, novel carbohydrates, and fiber.

Fungi are a common theme and working material in art. Fungi appear in nearly all art forms, including literature, paintings, and graphic arts; and more recently, contemporary art, music, photography, comic books, sculptures, video games, dance, cuisine, architecture, fashion, and design. There are some exhibitions dedicated to fungi, as well as an entire museum.

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