Law of Indonesia

Last updated

Law of Indonesia is based on a civil law system, intermixed with local customary law and Dutch law. Before the British presence and colonization began in the sixteenth century, indigenous kingdoms ruled the archipelago independently with their own custom laws, known as adat (unwritten, traditional rules still observed in the Indonesian society). [1] Foreign influences from India, China and the Middle East have not only affected culture, but also the customary adat laws. The people of Aceh in Sumatra, for instance, observe their own sharia law, while ethnic groups like the Toraja in Sulawesi still follow their animistic customary law.

Contents

Dutch presence and subsequent colonization of Indonesia for over three centuries has left a legacy of Dutch colonial law, largely in the Indonesian civil code and criminal code. Following independence in 1945, Indonesia began to form its own modern Indonesian law, modifying existing precepts. Dutch legal decisions maintain some authority in Indonesia through application of the concordance principle. The three components of adat, or customary law; Dutch law; and modern Indonesian law co-exist in the current law of Indonesia.

Hierarchy of legislations

Indonesian legislation comes in different forms. The following official hierarchy of Indonesian legislations (from top to bottom) is enumerated in Article 7 of Law No. 12/2011: [2]

  1. The 1945 Constitution (Undang-Undang Dasar Negara Republik Indonesia Tahun 1945 or UUD 1945);
  2. Resolutions of the People's Consultative Assembly (Ketetapan Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat or Tap MPR);
  3. Acts (Undang-Undang or UU, also translated as Laws) and government regulations in-lieu-of Acts (Peraturan Pemerintah Pengganti Undang-Undang or Perppu);
  4. Government regulations (Peraturan Pemerintah or PP);
  5. Presidential regulations (Peraturan Presiden or Perpres);
  6. Provincial ordinances (Peraturan Daerah Provinsi or Perda Provinsi); and
  7. City ordinances (Peraturan Daerah Kota or Perda Kota) and Regency ordinances (Peraturan Daerah Kabupaten or Perda Kabupaten).

In practice, there are also presidential decrees (Keputusan Presiden or Keppres), presidential instructions (Instruksi Presiden or Inpres), ministerial regulations (Peraturan Menteri or Permen), ministerial decrees (Keputusan Menteri or Kepmen) and circulars (Surat Edaran or SE), all of which are legally binding and sometimes in conflict with each other.

Once a legislation is promulgated, a State Gazette of the Republic of Indonesia (Lembaran Negara Republik Indonesia) is issued by State Secretariat. Sometimes elucidation of the legislation (Penjelasan) or attached documents like charts accompany the main legislation in a State Gazette Supplement (Tambahan Lembaran Negara Republik Indonesia). The Government also produces State Reports (Berita Negara, lit.'State News') to publish government and public notices as well as other ministerial regulations and decrees.

The 1945 Constitution

The 1945 Constitution is the highest legal instrument in Indonesia, to which the executive, legislative and judicial branches of government must defer. The constitution was written in July and August 1945, when Indonesia was emerging from Japanese occupation toward the end of World War II. It was replaced by the 1949 Federal Constitution and the 1950 Provisional Constitution, but was restored after President Sukarno decreed its reintroduction as the Constitution of Indonesia on 5 July 1959. However, constitutional deviations grew rapidly during Sukarno Administration.

The 32 years of Suharto Administration ended any practice of constitutional deviations exercised under Sukarno (i.e. empowering Sukarno to rule as President-for-Life, as well as allowing the president to appoint or dismiss members of the legislature at will). However, the constitution would never been amended either. In contrast to Sukarno's volatile administration, Suharto refused to countenance any changes to the constitution and the People's Consultative Assembly (Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat) passed a resolution in 1985 requiring a national referendum for any constitutional amendments.

After the Suharto's fall in 1998, the MPR amended the constitution four times between 1999 and 2002. Important amendments include a direct presidential election by the people, as well as limiting presidential term of office to only two-term five years each; The previous clauses in the Constitution of which had made it possible for Suharto's administration to stay in power for more than five terms. After the final amendment in 2002, the People's Representative Council (Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat or DPR, the lower house) gained more power of oversight over the executive branch, the Regional Representatives Council (Dewan Perwakilan Daerah or DPD, the upper house) was established, regional government and regional autonomy was recognized, and an expanded section about civil and human rights among other changes.

As of the fourth amendment in 2002, the constitution consists of 26 chapters and 37 articles. [3]

Resolutions of the People's Consultative Assembly

Resolution of the People's Consultative Assembly (Ketetapan Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat) or Tap MPR in short is issued by the People's Consultative Assembly (Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat, or MPR, the bicameral legislature of Indonesia), with legal binding power directly below the Constitution. Under the original, unamended 1945 Constitution, MPR is the highest state institution in Indonesia, with the sole power to exercise popular sovereignty, amend the Constitution, vote and elect the president, and enact a Broad Guidelines of State Policy (Garis-Garis Besar Haluan Negara). Thus, Tap MPR (despite not directly mentioned as a power of the MPR) is used to guide national and government policy, and its use was promoted during Suharto administration.

After the fall of Suharto from power, MPR amended the constitution, and ceased to issue any further Resolutions. In a final Tap MPR enacted in 2003, MPR confirmed the binding power of some Resolutions (such as the Resolution to ban the Marxist–Leninist ideology) and declared the rest as completely or partially devoid of legal powers. [4] Previously in 2000, MPR included the Resolutions in the official hierarchy of Indonesian legislations, but removed it in a 2004 Legislation Act. [5] [6] Finally in 2011 an amended Legislation Act was enacted, reintroducing the Tap MPR into the official hierarchy of Indonesian legislations, but not confirming MPR power to issue further resolutions. [7]

Acts and government regulations in-lieu-of acts

Acts or laws (Undang-Undang or UU) can only be enacted by the DPR with the president's assent. [8] The president, DPR, and DPD can propose a bill of law (Rancangan Undang-Undang or RUU) to be deliberated by the DPR. [9] During the process of drafting and deliberating a bill, DPR forms a small task group to discuss the proposed legislation with the relevant government institutions and various stakeholders. [10] When agreement has been reached and the DPR has approved the bill, the president signs the bill and it is enshrined into law as an act. [11] However, if the president refuses to sign the bill approved by DPR, the bill will automatically be enacted within thirty days and is promulgated. [12] When agreement cannot be reached within DPR to enact a bill into law, the bill may not be proposed again during the current DPR session. [13]

The president are also authorized to promulgate a Government Regulations in-lieu-of Acts (Peraturan Pemerintah Pengganti Undang-Undang or Perppu in short) by the Constitution. There are several reason why the president might issue a Perppu: [14]

However, after promulgation by the president, Perppu must be submitted to DPR for approval during the immediate DPR session (regular or extraordinary). If approved, Perppu will be enacted into an act. If not approved, said Perppu will be devoid of any legal power, and the president must submit a bill to repeal the Perppu. But during the time period between promulgation by the president and approval by DPR, Perppu is still a legally binding legislation with the same power as a proper Act.

Government regulations

Government regulations (Peraturan Pemerintah or PP) are issued by the president in the name of the Government to execute an act into proper government policies and regulations.

Presidential regulations

Presidential regulations (Peraturan Presiden or Perpres) are issued by the president to execute an act and its government regulation into sets of a more flexible and matter-specific policies and regulations, usually to be further executed by relevant institutions, ministries, and agency.

Provincial, city, and regency ordinances

Under current Indonesian administrative subdivisions, Indonesia is divided into 38 provinces (Provinsi) headed by a governor (Gubernur). Each provinces is then subdivided into the urban cities (Kota) headed by a mayor (Walikota), and the rural regencies (Kabupaten) headed by a regent (Bupati). Each of the provinces, cities, and regencies also have their own legislatures, called the Regional People's Representative Council (Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Daerah or DPRD). There are further administrative subdivisions below the cities and regencies, but they do not issue legislations. Several regions may use different nomenclatures for their subdivisions, but are principally still the same. [15]

Ordinances or regional regulations (Peraturan Daerah or Perda) are sets of legislations issued by the regional government applicable under their respective jurisdictions: provincial ordinances (Peraturan Daerah Provinsi or Perda Provinsi) issued by the Provincial DPRD, city ordinances (Peraturan Daerah Kota or Perda Kota) issued by the city DPRD, and regency ordinances (Peraturan Daerah Kabupaten or Perda Kabupaten) issued by the regency DPRD. The provincial ordinances is higher in rank than the city and regency ordinances, though sometimes legislations passed on the national level allowed them to be directly executed with city and regency ordinances, bypassing the issuance of provincial ordinances.

The ordinances regulated specific matters pertaining regional autonomy, facilitation of local situations, and executions of legislations of higher level than the ordinances. [7] The governors, mayors, and regents may issue their own regulations, decrees, and instructions to further execute and specified matters of the ordinances into applicable policies.

Similarly with the case in national-level Acts lawmaking procedures, the DPRDs and the regional heads of government can propose bills of law to be deliberated in the DPRD. If an agreement has been reached, the regional heads of government will sign the bill into an ordinance, then the bill will automatically enacted into an ordinance within thirty days.

Sources of laws

Written laws

As Indonesia is considered to prescribe to civil law system, the legal system is heavily reliant on statutory laws. Generally, all legislations explicitly mentioned in the official hierarchy of Indonesian laws (the hierarchy of legislations mentioned above) is legally binding and applicable as a source of law. Other legally binding legislations not included in the official hierarchy may be mentioned in the attached elucidation of the 2011 Lawmaking Act. Treaties ratified into an act also serve as a source of law. [16]

Under Article 2 of the transitory provisions in the Constitution, all legislations and institutions made under Dutch colonial law will remain in place and in force, until new legislations and institutions are made to replace them. Legislations such as the Algemene Bepalingen are still in force (albeit with articles repealed with new legislations), and institutions such as the civil registry still operates to this day. [17]

Unwritten laws

The term "Unwritten Laws" refers to laws not promulgated through official authority. There are concerns that Indonesian legal system grew increasingly positivist and overregulated, pushing the unwritten laws to irrelevance. [18]

Conventions

Conventions or customary norms are rules that was followed by official authority and considered an applicable law, even though it was not enacted through any official means. These conventions are usually rules which are conducted and abided by society in a similar situation, all while a legal belief must exist that said rules are binding as law ( Opinio juris sive necessitatis ). [19]

In Indonesia, a sets of constitutional conventions (Konvensi Ketatanegaraan) existed and observed by academics and lawmakers. Most of the conventions are now set into law as statutes. [20]

Examples of observed constitutional conventions in Indonesia
#ConventionsCurrent statusNotes
1Annual flag ceremony observed during the Indonesian independence day on 17 AugustFormalized into ActLaw No. 24/2009 on Flags, Language, National Symbols, and Anthems

Law No. 9/2010 on Protocols

2Annual Presidential Address to the MPR on 16 AugustFormalized into ActLaw No. 17/2014 on the Legislatures, last amended with Act No. 13/2019
3Presidential appointment of Constitutional JudgesFormalized into ActLaw No. 24/2003 on Constitutional Court, last amended with Act No.7/2020
4Hanging official pictures of the president and the vice president in government officesFormalized into ActLaw No. 24/2009 on Flags, Language, National Symbols, and Anthems
5Sole presidential power to grant pardon, rehabilitation, amnesty, and abolitionConstitutional amendment to include formal opinions from DPR and MA prior to granting the powersArticle 14 of the Constitution after amendment
6Hundred Days program by the governmentNot Formalized
7President's decision not to inaugurate an incumbent Attorney GeneralFormalized into Act, incumbent Attorney General (and all other incumbent officials) must be re-inaugurated after completing their previous termLaw No. 16/2004 on Public Prosecution Service
8Presidential Address to introduce the draft for National Budget to the DPRNot Formalized
9MPR voting and decision-making mechanismsNot Formalized, MPR no longer have any decision-making powers except on presidential removal from power
10Vice-presidential authority relating to authorities delegated from the presidentNot Formalized
11Rules on the limits of president's delegation of authority to the vice presidentNot Formalized

Adat laws

Adat laws are a set of written, traditional rules still observed in Indonesian society. It usually involves sets of laws, code of conducts, and dispute resolution mechanisms. Instead on relying on written codes, the observance and enforcement of adat laws involve elder member of the society as well as their collective will and awareness. [21] [22]

No single, unified adat laws apply for the whole Indonesian society; Every ethnic groups have their own sets of adat laws.

It is similar to how conventions work, with the addition of an evolutionary characteristic of adat laws. For example, adat laws observed in Minang society of west Sumatran highlands initially ascribed toward worship of ancestors, as well as Hindu-Buddhist faith. After Islam was adopted as an integral faith within the Minang people, Islamic values began to be inserted into the adat laws of Minang people, without completely abolishing the existing values.

Principles of Sharia Law

Sharia Law as a whole is not considered to be part of Indonesian unwritten laws. However, a deep influence of Islam existed on how to approach Indonesian laws, and aspects of Sharia Law is applicable on certain aspects of Indonesian Muslims' livelihood. Initial major presence of Islam in Indonesian laws existed in the form of marriage and inheritance laws for Muslims. Its rules is directly applied in the Religious Court, and currently an official compilation of applicable marriage and inheritance laws existed and later adopted as a statute, in the form of Presidential Instruction No. 1/1991 on the Introduction of Islamic Law Compilation. [23]

Later, a 2006 amendment for the 1989 Religious Court Act expanded the religious courts' authority to include hearing cases of Sharia economy disputes. [24] Another one, a 1998 amendment for the 1992 Banking Act also distinguished conventional banking from Sharia banking. [25]

A major change happen under the Act of Aceh Governance No. 11/2006, which acknowledged Aceh's special status within Indonesia. [26] The Act allows for the widespread application of Sharia laws in the local governance of Aceh, includes education, economy, and judicial system. A special nomenclature of Ordinance, the Qanun , is used for Aceh legislations. Sharia criminal law is applicable in Aceh. [27]

Secondary source materials on Indonesian laws may be used. Opinions, doctrines, and academic writings, such as books and law journals written by legal scholars and practitioners may usually be used in court for providing explanation and elucidation purpose. Recently, the use of online websites and databases may provide an alternative channel to look for references, which otherwise may be hard to search by conventional means. [28]

Jurisprudences

Court decisions, case laws, or judge-made laws are not binding beyond the case and the parties; Stare decisis or precedents is not directly applicable in Indonesia, as is common with other civil law countries. However, decisions of the Supreme Court and the Constitutional Court, including the attached dissenting and concurring opinions, are considered to have persuasive force of precedence and are usually referred to at subsequent cases. Still, judges are not bound to apply previous decisions, and will mainly use the facts presented to the court to reach a decision. [29]

Criminal laws

Main sources of law for Indonesian criminal law come from the criminal code (Kitab Undang-Undang Hukum Pidana) and the criminal procedural code (Kitab Undang-Undang Hukum Acara Pidana). Other rules concerning a more specific subject on criminal actions may come from Acts and other regulations. The criminal code is a localized, translated version of Dutch colonial criminal code, the Nederlandsch-Indische Wetboek van Strafrecht which in turn was based on French Penal Code of 1810 and Wetboek van Strafrecht (Nederland). The criminal procedural code is post-colonial, enacted into law in 1981.

Under the previous pre-2023 Criminal Code, Indonesian criminal legal system recognized two types of criminal acts: the heavier crimes (Kejahatan or Misdrijven) and the lesser misdemeanors (Pelanggaran or Overtredingen). [30] However this distinction is abolished with the new Criminal Code enacted in 2023.

Pre-2023 Criminal code

The pre-2023 Criminal Code (Staatsblad 1915:732, entered into force in 1918, adopted by independent Indonesia by Law No. 1/1946 to be applied in Java and Madura, and finally made applicable nationwide by Law No. 73/1958) is divided into three "Books". First Book deals with general provisions including extent of application, punishment, participation in punishable acts, filing of complaints in criminal cases, and lapse of the right to prosecute and definitions. Second Book deals with crimes including crimes against the state, against public order, crimes against life, and crimes against the person and property. Third Book sets out the misdemeanors, which are the lesser crimes.

2023 Criminal Code

The Indonesian government has considered changes to the criminal code ever since independence, with the colonial-era code being seen as a mismatch with current national culture and values. In 2019, a new bill on criminal code was publicly announced, but controversial provisions criminalizing extramarital sex, abortions, and other restrictions on religious and civil liberties led to a series of protests and riots in response, ultimately causing the bill to replace the code to be scrapped. [31] However, in 2022, a bill reintroducing the 2019 proposal with some statutes being "watered down" was passed by Indonesia's parliament and is planned to take effect in full after a three-year provisional period, despite similar concerns about its effect on civil rights and the rights of religious and sexual minorities. [32]

The new criminal code is finally enacted as Law No. 1/2023 on the Criminal Code. The code is expanded to 624 articles, split into 2 Books: "General Provisions" and "Crime"; The new code no longer differentiates crime from lesser misdemeanors. It also contains provisions regarding government acknowledgement of 'living laws' (adat or customary rules) in punishing crimes. [33]

First Book: on General Provisions
Chapters No.Chapters (in English)Chapters (in Indonesian)Articles
IScopes of the Applicability of Criminal LawRuang Lingkup Berlakunya Ketentuan Peraturan Perundang-undangan PidanaArt. 1-11
IICrimes and Criminal LiabilityTindak Pidana dan Pertanggungjawaban PidanaArt. 12-50
IIISentencing, Punishment, and EnforcementPemidanaan, Pidana, dan TindakanArt. 51-131
IVLapse of Authority to Prosecute and to Carry Out Criminal PunishmentsGugurnya Kewenangan Penuntutan dan Pelaksanaan PidanaArt. 132-143
VTerminologiesPengertian IstilahArt. 144-186
VIConcluding ProvisionsAturan PenutupArt. 187
Second Book: on Crimes
Chapters No.Chapters (in English)Chapters (in Indonesian)Articles
ICrimes Against State SecurityTindak Pidana terhadap Keamanan NegaraArt. 188-216
IICrimes Against the Dignity of the President and/or the Vice PresidentTindak Pidana terhadap Martabat Presiden dan/atau Wakil PresidenArt. 217-220
IIICrimes Against Cordial Foreign StatesTindak Pidana terhadap Negara SahabatArt. 221-231
IVCrimes Against Meetings of Legislative and Government BodiesTindak Pidana terhadap Penyelenggaraan Rapat Lembaga Legislatif dan Badan PemerintahArt. 232-233
VCrimes Against Public OrderTindak Pidana terhadap Ketertiban UmumArt. 234-277
VICrimes Against Judicial ProcessTindak Pidana terhadap Proses PeradilanArt. 278-299
VIICrimes Against Religions, Beliefs, and Religious or Faithful LifeTindak Pidana terhadap Agama, Kepercayaan, dan Kehidupan Beragama atau KepercayaanArt. 300-305
VIIICrimes Against the Safety of Persons, Health, and PropertyTindak Pidana yang Membahayakan Keamanan Umum bagi Orang, Kesehatan, dan BarangArt. 306-346
IXCrimes Against Government AuthorityTindak Pidana terhadap Kekuasaan PemerintahArt. 347-376
XPerjuryTindak Pidana Keterangan Palsu di atas SumpahArt. 373
XICounterfeiting of Currency and BanknotesTindak Pidana Pemalsuan Mata Uang dan Uang KertasArt. 374-381
XIIForgery of Stamps, Seals, and State MarksTindak Pidana Pemalsuan Meterai, Cap Negara, dan Tera NegaraArt. 382-390
XIIIForgery of DocumentsTindak Pidana Pemalsuan SuratArt. 391-400
XIVCrimes Against Persons' Origins and MarriageTindak Pidana terhadap Asal Usul dan PerkawinanArt. 401-405
XVIndecencyTindak Pidana KesusilaanArt. 406-427
XVIDesertion and AbandonmentTindak Pidana Penelantaran OrangArt. 428-432
XVIIDefamationTindak Pidana PenghinaanArt. 433-442
XVIIIRevelation of SecretsTindak Pidana Pembukaan RahasiaArt. 443-445
XIXCrimes Against Personal LibertyTindak Pidana terhadap Kemerdekaan OrangArt. 446-456
XXHuman TraffickingTindak Pidana Penyelundupan ManusiaArt. 457
XXICrimes Against Life and FetusTindak Pidana terhadap Nyawa dan JaninArt. 458-465
XXIIPhysical ViolenceTindak Pidana terhadap TubuhArt. 466-473
XXIIICausing Death or Bodily Harm due to NegligenceTindak Pidana yang Mengakibatkan Mati atau Luka karena KealpaanArt. 474-475
XXIVTheftTindak Pidana PencurianArt. 476-481
XXVExtortion and ThreatsTindak Pidana Pemerasan dan PengancamanArt. 482-485
XXVIEmbezzlementTindak Pidana PenggelapanArt. 486-491
XXVIIFraudTindak Pidana Perbuatan CurangArt. 492-510
XXVIIICrimes Against Fiduciary DutyTindak Pidana terhadap Kepercayaan dalam menjalankan UsahaArt. 511-520
XXIXVandalism and Destruction of Goods and PropertyTindak Pidana Perusakan dan Penghancuran Barang dan Bangunan GedungArt. 521-526
XXXCrimes in Public OfficeTindak Pidana JabatanArt. 527-541
XXXIMaritime CrimeTindak Pidana PelayaranArt. 542-574
XXXIIAviation Crime and Crime Against Flight Facilities and InfrastructuresTindak Pidana Penerbangan dan Tindak Pidana terhadap Sarana serta Prasarana PenerbanganArt. 575-590
XXXIIIPossession of Stolen Goods, as well as Crimes in Publication and PrintsTindak Pidana Penadahan, Penerbitan, dan PencetakanArt. 591-596
XXXIVCustomary Criminal LawTindak Pidana Berdasarkan Hukum yang Hidup dalam MasyarakatArt. 597
XXXVSpecial CrimesTindak Pidana KhususArt. 598-612
XXXVITransitory ProvisionsKetentuan PeralihanArt. 613-620
XXXVIIConcluding ProvisionsKetentuan PenutupArt. 621-624

Punishments

Pre-2023 Criminal Code

Article 10 of the pre-2023 Criminal Code rules on the initial sets of punishments imposed on people convicted of a crime. There are two types of punishments: Main and Additional Punishments. Main punishments consist of:

Additional punishments, which imposed only to complement the main punishments, consist of:

2023 Criminal Code

Article 64 of the new Criminal Code rules on three types of punishment categories: Main punishments, Additional punishments, and Capital punishment (written in the code as 'other punishments specified for particular crimes in other rules').

Main punishments consist of imprisonment, enshelterment, observation, paying fines, and, performing community services.

Additional punishments consist of:

Civil laws

Indonesian legal system utilizes the Civil Code (Kitab Undang-Undang Hukum Perdata or KUHPer, previously known as Burgerlijk Wetboek or BW), as well as two civil procedural codes: Herzien Inlandsche Reglement or HIR for civil cases in Java and Madura, and Rechtreglement voor de Buitengewesten or RBG for civil cases outside Java and Madura. [36] There is also the Commerce Code (Kitab Undang-Undang Hukum Dagang or KUHD previously known as Wetboek voor Koophandel) used for basic commercial principles. The Civil Code, the Commerce Code, and both civil procedural codes are Dutch colonial legal codes, directly adapted from Dutch laws. Other rules concerning civil law may come from newer, more specific Acts and other regulations.

Civil code

The Civil Code (Staatsblad 1847:23, entered into force in 1848) is divided into four "Books": Persons (Orang), Property (Kebendaan), Contracts (Perikatan), and Evidence and Limitations (Pembuktian dan Daluwarsa). Note that many chapters and articles within the Civil Code has been repealed and replaced by newer legislations, such as rules on marriage in the Code is mostly regulated with 1974 Marriage Act.

First Book: on Persons
Chapters No.Chapters (in English)Chapters (in Indonesian)Articles
IEnjoyment and Loss of Civil RightsMenikmati dan Kehilangan Hak KewargaanArt. 1-3
IIDeeds of the Civil RegistryAkta-akta Catatan SipilArt. 4-5
IIIResidence or DomicileTempat Tinggal atau DomisiliArt. 6-25
IVMarriagePerkawinanArt. 26-102
VRights and Obligations of SpousesHak dan Kewajiban Suami IsteriArt. 103-118
VIMarital Joint Property and its ManagementHarta Bersama Menurut Undang-Undang dan PengurusannyaArt. 119-138
VIINuptial AgreementsPerjanjian KawinArt. 139-179
VIIIMarital Joint Property or Nuptial Agreements in the Event of Second or Further MarriagesGabungan Harta Bersama atau Perjanjian Kawin pada Perkawinan Kedua atau SelanjutnyaArt. 180-185
IXDivision of Joint PropertyPemisahan Harta BendaArt. 186-198
XDissolution of MarriagePembubaran PerkawinanArt. 199-232a
XISeparation of Bed and BoardPisah Meja dan RanjangArt. 233-249
XIIPaternity and the Origins of ChildrenKebapakan dan Asal Keturunan Anak-anakArt. 250-289
XIIIFamilial Relationship by Blood and MarriageKekeluargaan Sedarah dan SemendaArt. 290-297
XIVParental AuthorityKekuasaan Orang TuaArt. 298-329
XIV-AStipulation, Amendment, and Revocation of Support PaymentsPenentuan, Perubahan, dan Pencabutan Tunjangan NafkahArt. 329a-329b
XVMinority and GuardianshipKebelumdewasaan dan PerwalianArt. 330-418a
XVIEmancipationPendewasaanArt. 419-432
XVIIConservatorshipPengampuanArt. 433-461
-Concluding ProvisionsKetentuan PenutupArt. 462
XVIIIAbsenceKetidakhadiranArt. 463-498
Second Book: on Property
Chapters No.Chapters (in English)Chapters (in Indonesian)Articles
IProperty and Its DistinctionsBarang dan PembagiannyaArt. 499-528
IIPossession of Property, and the Rights Resulting TherefromBesit dan Hak-hak yang Timbul KarenanyaArt. 529-569
IIIOwnership of PropertyHak MilikArt. 570-624
IVRights and Duties among Owners of Neighboring Plots of LandHak dan Kewajiban Antara Para Pemilik Pekarangan yang BertetanggaArt. 625-672
VCompulsory LaborKerja RodiArt. 673
VIServitudePengabdian PekaranganArt. 674-710
VIISuperficies (opstal)Hak Numpang KarangArt. 711-719
VIIIGround Lease (erfpacht)Hak GunaArt. 720-736
IXInterests in Land, and One-tenth EntitlementsBunga Tanah dan SepersepuluhArt. 737-755
XUsufructs (vruchtgebruik)Hak Pakai HasilArt. 756-817
XIRights to Use and OccupyHak Pakai dan Hak MendiamiArt. 818-829
XIIInheritance by DemisePewarisan karena KematianArt. 830-873
XIIITestamentsSurat WasiatArt. 874-1004
XIVTestaments Executors and Estate ManagersPelaksana Surat Wasiat dan Pengelola Harta PeninggalanArt. 1005-1022
XVRights to Deliberate and to Detail over the EstateHak Berpikir dan Hak Istimewa untuk Merinci Harta PeninggalanArt. 1023-1043
XVIAcceptance and Rejection of InheritancesHal Menerima dan Menolak WarisanArt. 1044-1065
XVIIEstate DivisionPemisahan Harta PeninggalanArt. 1066-1125
XVIIIUnclaimed EstatesHarta Peninggalan yang Tak TerurusArt. 1126-1130
XIXPriority of Creditor DebtsPiutang dengan Hak MendahulukanArt. 1131-1149
XXMortgages over Moveable PropertyGadaiArt. 1150-1161
XXIMortgages over Fixed Registered PropertyHipotekArt. 1162-1232
Third Book: on Contracts
Chapters No.Chapters (in English)Chapters (in Indonesian)Articles
IContracts in GeneralPerikatan pada UmumnyaArt. 1233-1312
IICommitments Arising from Contracts or AgreementsPerikatan yang Lahir dari Kontrak atau PersetujuanArt. 1313-1351
IIIContracts Arising by Force of LawPerikatan yang Lahir karena Undang-UndangArt. 1352-1380
IVNullification of ContractsHapusnya PerikatanArt. 1381-1456
VSales and PurchasesJual BeliArt. 1457-1540
VIExchangesTukar MenukarArt. 1451-1456
VIILeasingSewa MenyewaArt. 1457-1600
VII-AEmployment AgreementsPerjanjian KerjaArt. 1601-1603w
-Concluding ProvisionsKetentuan PenutupArt. 1601x-1617
VIIIPartnershipsPerseroan Perdata (Persekutuan Perdata)Art. 1618-1652
IXLegal EntitiesBadan HukumArt. 1653-1665
XGrantsPenghibahanArt. 1666-1693
XIDeposits of GoodsPenitipan BarangArt. 1694-1739
XIILendingPinjam PakaiArt. 1740-1753
XIIILoans for ConsumptionPinjam Pakai HabisArt. 1754-1769
XIVFixed or Perpetual InterestsBunga Tetap atau Bunga AbadiArt. 1770-1773
XVAleatory AgreementsPersetujuan Untung-untunganArt. 1774-1791
XVIIssuance of PowersPemberian KuasaArt. 1792-1819
XVIIGuarantorsPenanggung UtangArt. 1820-1864
Fourth Book: on Evidence and Limitations
Chapters No.Chapters (in English)Chapters (in Indonesian)Articles
IEvidence in GeneralPembuktian pada UmumnyaArt. 1865-1866
IIEvidence by LettersPembuktian dengan TulisanArt. 1867-1894
IIIEvidence by WitnessesPembuktian dengan Saksi-saksiArt. 1895-1914
IVInferencesPersangkaan-persangkaanArt. 1915-1922
VConfessionsPengakuanArt. 1923-1928
VIOaths Taken Before the JudgeSumpah di Muka HakimArt. 1929-1945
VIILimitationsDaluwarsaArt. 1946-1992
-Concluding ProvisionsKetentuan PenutupArt. 1993

Family laws

Rules on marriage in Indonesia are stipulated mostly under the 1974 Marriage Act (Undang-Undang No. 1/1974 tentang Perkawinan) and has largely unchanged, safe for an amendment in 2019 and three constitutional reviews in 2010 [note 1] , 2015 [note 2] , and 2017 [note 3] . [37] [38] The Act itself repealed several articles on family and marriage previously covered in the Civil Code, as well as repealed colonial laws on Mixed Marriage (Reglement op de Gemengde Huwelijken) and special rules for marriage of native Christians (Huwelijke Ordonantie Christen Indonesiers), creating a post-colonial outlook and approach on family law in Indonesia. [39] In addition, some rules are also added through the official Indonesian Compilation of Islamic Laws (Kompilasi Hukum Islam), a set of general Sharia laws and principles in private laws, applicable and compatible with Islamic practices in present-day Indonesian Muslim society. [40]

In summary:

Interfaith marriage

Curiously, despite the Act not acknowledging lawfulness of marriage concluded between man and woman of different faiths, it is also not explicitly outlawing them. Interfaith marriage in Indonesia remains a divisive issue. [44] In June 2023, The Supreme Court has issued circular, forbidding judges in the lower courts to approve legalization requests of interfaith marriage as a requirement for registration at the civil registry, citing the obligation to uphold the definition of a lawful marriage ("...spiritual union of man and woman..." and "...lawful under each parties' religious rules of marriage."). [45] Meanwhile, the Constitutional Court also rejected earlier petitions to review the Marriage Act, hence upholding the role of state and the importance of religion in family laws. [46]

Commercial and corporate laws

Indonesian commercial law utilizes several sets of laws, starting with the colonial Commerce Code. The Commerce Code repealed and replaced many articles regarding commercial and corporate activities in the Civil Code. In turn, new laws and regulations would be enacted to repeal and replace older rules from the codes, as well as to introduce new norms and rules, such as the Limited Liability Company Act of 2007 (Undang-Undang No. 40/2007 tentang Perseroan Terbatas). [47]

The Commerce Code introduces several type of business entities (Badan Usaha):

Of all these business entities, only limited liability companies are which to be considered a legal entity at the same time. Indonesian laws also acknowledge separate sets of Legal Entities (Badan Hukum):

Limited liability companies

The limited liability companies or PT are the most common legal entities registered to run business in Indonesia. It is the only form of business where foreign direct investments (FDI) are allowed. [51] The form of limited liability companies in Indonesia are very similar to Naamloze Vennootschap or NV practiced in the Netherlands. PTs in Indonesia are required to form the following organs in order to run a business:

Agrarian laws

The agrarian laws in Indonesian are composed mostly regarding land laws, but in the broadest term might include resource management principles on water, mining, fishery, and forestry. The authoritative statute regarding this subject is the 1960 Agrarian Basic Law Act (Undang-Undang No. 5/1960 tentang Peraturan Dasar Pokok-pokok Agraria) or simply the Agrarian Act. Its purpose was to unify the already-existing colonial and various adat rules on land and land use, and transform them into a national land reform framework for a modern agrarian laws. [52]

In summary:

Intellectual Property laws

Intellectual Property (IP) laws exist and sufficiently regulated. Several categories of IP rights are acknowledged, regulated, and protected under its own act.

IP categories (in Indonesian)IP categories (in English)Duration of IP protection
MerekTrademarks10 years
PatenPatents20 years
Desain industriIndustrial designs10 years
Hak ciptaCopyrights
  • 70 years in general;
  • 50 years for computer programs, artistic performance, and phonographic producers;
  • 20 years for broadcasting.
Indikasi geografisGeographical indicationsProtection last for as long as the reputation, quality, and characteristic attached to the goods, all of which are the basis of the GI rights authorization, are maintained.
Desain tata letak sirkuit terpaduIntegrated circuit layout designs10 years
Rahasia dagangTrade secretsUndetermined
Perlindungan varietas tanamanPlant varieties protection
  • 20 years for annual plants;
  • 25 years for perennial plants.
Hak intelektual komunalCommunal intellectual propertiesUndetermined

Trademarks

Marks (Merek) are two- or three-dimensional visual signs represented with images, logos, names, words, letters, numbers, sets of colors, sounds, holographic imageries, or any combinations thereof, created with the purpose of differentiating goods and/or services provided by any individuals or entities, used in any commercial activities. [55] These marks are to be used for identification of products, promotion of products, quality assurance of products, and marker of products' origins.

A registered trademark's protection lasts for 10 years since the date of trademark authorization, and renewable for extensions.

Trademarks protection is regulated under the 2016 Trademarks and Geographical Indications Act (Undang-Undang No. 20/2016 tentang Merek dan Indikator Geografis). [56]

Patents

Patents (Paten) are exclusive rights which belong to inventors of technological inventions. Ownership of patents allowed inventors to implement themselves or authorize others to implement the inventions. Inventions (Invensi) are defined as inventors' problem-solving ideas in a technology-specific problems, which may appear as a product, a process, or an innovation and development of said products and processes. [57] Meanwhile, Simple Patents (Paten Sederhana) are different from normal patents, in which they are improvement of an existing process and products, directly applicable in the industry.

A patent's right lasts for 20 years since the date of patent authorization. A Simple Patent's right may lasts for 10 years since the date of patent authorization.

Patents protection is regulated under the 2016 Patents Act (Undang-Undang No. 13/2016 tentang Paten). [58]

Industrial designs

Industrial designs (Desain Industri) are defined as a two- or three-dimensional creative works of forms, configurations, or compositions of lines and/or colors, or any combinations thereof, with an aesthetical value and executed into a two- or three-dimensional form, and applicable in the production of goods, industrial commodities, or hand-crafted products. [59]

An industrial design's right and protection lasts for 10 years since the date of industrial design authorization. The right owner holds exclusive rights to either authorize or to forbid its commercial use.

Industrial designs protection is regulated under the 2000 Industrial Designs Act (Undang-Undang No. 31/2000 tentang Desain Industri). [60]

Copyrights

Copyrights (Hak Cipta) are exclusive rights of creators over their creative works, automatically exist and enter into force under a principle of declaration after its creation. Within the rules of copyrights, a Related Rights (Hak Terkait) serve as an exclusive rights granted to performers, phonographic producers, or broadcasting bodies who utilized and benefitted from performing, producing, and broadcasting creative works. [61] Under copyright laws, several creative works are protected, such as:

Several dates of copyright protections exist:

Copyrights protection is regulated under the 2014 Copyrights Act (Undang-Undang No. 28/2014 tentang Hak Cipta). [62]

Geographical indications

Geographical indications or GI (Indikasi Geografis) are a mark or sign which indicate an origin of produced goods, which due to its geographical elements, may it be natural or manmade, able to attach to those goods a certain reputation, quality, and characteristic. [63]

Protection of GI rights last for as long as the reputation, quality, and characteristic attached to the goods, all of which are the basis of the GI rights authorization, are maintained.

GI protection is regulated under the 2016 Trademarks and Geographical Indications Act (Undang-Undang No. 20/2016 tentang Merek dan Indikator Geografis). [56]

Integrated circuit layout designs

Integrated circuit layout designs (Desain Tata Letak Sirkuit Terpadu) are defined as a three-dimensional assembly of a layout design, of which one part of it have to be an active element, also of which all of the interconnects or part of the interconnects of an integrated circuit and the three-dimensional assembly are meant for the creation of an integrated circuit. [64]

Meanwhile, an integrated circuit or IC (Sirkuit Terpadu) is defined as a produced good, finished or semi finished, of which one part of it have to be an active element, also of which all of the interconnects or part of the interconnects are integrated within a semiconducting material to achieve an electronic function.

An IC layout design protection last for 10 years since the layout design first commercially exploited or since the date of authorization.

The IC Layout Design protection is regulated under the 2000 Integrated Circuit Layout Designs Act (Undang-Undang No. 32/2000 tentang Desain Tata Letak Sirkuit Terpadu). [65]

Trade secrets

Trade secret (Rahasia Dagang) is a publicly unknown information of technological or business value, which also have an economic value for its usefulness in business activity, and for that it is to be kept secret by its owners. [66] These trade secrets may include methods of production, processing methods, sales method, or other technological and/or business information, which may have economic value and unknown to the general public.

Protection of Trade Secret rights is regulated under the 2000 Trade Secrets Act (Undang-Undang No. 30/2000 tentang Rahasia Dagang). [67]

Plant varieties

Plant varieties protection (Perlindungan Varietas Tanaman) is an exclusive right of plant breeders to control materials relating to cultivating a unique plant variety.

Protection of plant variety rights is regulated under the 2000 Plant Variety Protection Act (Undang-Undang No. 29/2000 tentang Perlindungan Varietas Tanaman). [68]

Communal IPs

With the ratification of Nagoya Protocol, Indonesian IP protection laws beginning to acknowledge communal rights over certain IPs, such as: (1) Expressions of traditional cultures, (2) Traditional knowledge, and (3) Genetic resources. In addition, potential GI rights can be applied under a communal rights belonging to a community. [69]

Communal IP protection is regulated under the 2017 Law and Human Rights Ministerial Regulation on Communal Intellectual Property Data. [70]

Nationality law

International law and treaties

Rules and regulations regarding the application of international laws in Indonesia are based in the Art. 11 of the Constitution, the 2000 Treaties Act (Undang-Undang Nomor 24 Tahun 2000 tentang Perjanjian Internasional) and 2018 Constitutional Court decision on the Act. [1] [3] International treaties, following its signature or accession by authorized Indonesian officials, need to be debated by the People's Representative Council and ratified into acts. Treaties concerning these following subjects must be ratified by acts:

Some treaties, however, can be ratified using only presidential regulations, if the subjects of the treaties are not concerning the points mentioned above, or if said treaties are mere procedural and do not need any form of ratification into national legislations (i.e. protocols to a treaty).

Problems with the system

There are still many problems with the legal system in Indonesia. Many laws and regulations conflict with each other, and because the legal system (including the courts) sometimes does not operate effectively, it can be difficult to resolve these conflicts. Further, the rule of law in Indonesia is often undermined by rife corruption among the nation's judiciary and law enforcers. [71]

Resources

The overall legal system is badly under resourced, both in the public sector and the private sector which provides many services to clients. For example, in early 2015 it was reported that there was a severe shortage of judges which was particularly affecting the operations of district courts (pengadilan negeri). It was reported that around 250 new judges were needed each year but that no new judges had been appointed for four years. At the time, Indonesia was reported to have a total of around 8,300 judges but that around an additional 1,000 judges were needed to fill the backlog. [72]

The Indonesian government and professional lawyers in Indonesia are well-aware of these problems and are working, over time, to improve the system. [73]

Notes

  1. Constitutional Court decision number 46/PUU-VIII/2010 on the civil relationship between a biological father and a child born out of wedlock.
  2. Constitutional Court decision number 69/PUU-XIII/2015 on postnuptial agreements, previously not regulated under the Marriage Act.
  3. Constitutional Court decision number 22/PUU-XV/2017 on raising the minimum marriageable age to 19 for both man and woman.
  4. Specifically includes Indonesian-style wayang puppetry.

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Provinces of Indonesia</span> First-level divisions of Indonesia

Provinces are the first-level administrative divisions of Indonesia. It is formerly called the first-level provincial region before the Reform era. Provinces have a local government, consisting of a governor and a regional legislative body. The governor and members of local representative bodies are elected by popular vote for five-year terms, but governors can only serve for two terms. Provincial governments have the authority to regulate and manage their own government affairs, subject to the limits of the central government. The average land area of all 38 provinces in Indonesia is about 49,800 km2 (19,200 sq mi), and they had an average population in mid 2023 of 7,334,111 people.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Legislation on Chinese Indonesians</span> Laws oppressing people of Chinese background

Indonesia's Legislation on Chinese Indonesians were conducted through a series of constitutional laws and directives enacted by the Government of Indonesia to enforce cultural assimilation of ethnic Chinese in Indonesia with the wider Indonesian society. The legislations mostly regulated individual naming conventions and business statutes.

Indonesia is divided into provinces. Provinces are made up of regencies and cities (kota). Provinces, regencies, and cities have their own local governments and parliamentary bodies.

In Indonesia, village or subdistrict is the fourth-level subdivision and the smallest administrative division of Indonesia below a district, regency/city, and province. Similar administrative divisions outside of Indonesia include barangays in the Philippines, Muban in Thailand, civil townships and incorporated municipalities in the United States and Canada, communes in France and Vietnam, dehestan in Iran, hromada in Ukraine, Gemeinden in Germany, comuni in Italy, or municipios in Spain. The UK equivalent are civil parishes in England and communities in Wales. There are a number of names and types for villages in Indonesia, with desa being the most frequently used for regencies, and kelurahan for cities or for those communities within regencies which have town characteristics. According to the 2019 report by the Ministry of Home Affairs, there are 8,488 urban villages and 74,953 rural villages in Indonesia. North Aceh Regency contained the highest number of rural villages (852) amongst all of the regencies of Indonesia, followed by Pidie Regency with 730 rural villages and Bireuen Regency with 609 rural villages. Prabumulih, with only 12 rural villages, contained the fewest. Counted together, the sixteen regencies of Indonesia containing the most rural villages—namely, North Aceh (852), Pidie (730), Bireuen (609), Aceh Besar (604), Tolikara (541), East Aceh (513), Yahukimo (510), Purworejo (469), Lamongan (462), South Nias (459), Kebumen (449), Garut (421), Bojonegoro (419), Bogor (416), Cirebon (412), and Pati (401)—contain one-third of all the rural villages in Indonesia. Five of these are located in Aceh, two in Highland Papua, three in Central Java, two in East Java, three in West Java, and one in North Sumatra. An average number of rural villages in the regencies and 15 cities of Indonesia is 172 villages. A village is the lowest administrative division in Indonesia, and it is the lowest of the four levels. The average land area of villages in Indonesia is about 25.41 km2 (9.81 sq mi), while its average population is about 3,723 people.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Indonesian passport</span> Passport of the Republic of Indonesia issued to Indonesian citizens

An Indonesian passport is a travel document issued by the Government of Indonesia to Indonesian citizens residing in Indonesia or overseas. The main governing body with regards to the issuance of such passport(s), possession(s), withdrawal and related matters is the Directorate General of Immigration under the Ministry of Law and Human Rights. Indonesia does not recognize multiple citizenship for its citizens and such citizens will automatically lose their Indonesian citizenship if another citizenship is acquired voluntarily. Special exceptions allow newly born citizens to hold dual nationalities until his/her eighteenth birthday after which a choice of either nationalities should be decided. The latest Indonesian passport has different national birds and sceneries on each page.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">President of Indonesia</span> Head of state and head of government of the Republic of Indonesia

The president of the Republic of Indonesia is the head of state and head of government of the Republic of Indonesia. The president leads the executive branch of the Indonesian government and is the supreme commander of the Indonesian National Armed Forces and the Indonesian National Police. Since 2004, the president and vice president are directly elected to a five-year term, once renewable, allowing for a maximum of 10 years in office. The current President of the Republic of Indonesia is Joko Widodo.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Judiciary of Indonesia</span> Judicial system in Indonesia

The Judiciary of Indonesia constitutionally consists of the Supreme Court of Indonesia, the Constitutional Court of Indonesia, and the lesser court system under the Supreme Court. These lesser courts are categorically subdivided into the public courts, religious courts, state administrative courts, and military courts.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Driving license in Indonesia</span>

The Indonesian driving license is a legal document required for a person to be allowed to drive a motor vehicle in Indonesia. It is issued by the Indonesian National Police (POLRI), renewable every 5 years, and is valid in all ASEAN member states without an International Driving Permit. Driving license holders are subject to all Indonesian road rules and regulations. There is no provisional driving license in Indonesia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ministry of Law and Human Rights</span> Ministry branch of Indonesia

The Ministry of Law and Human Rights is an Indonesian ministry that administers laws and human rights. It is responsible to the president, and is led by the Minister of Law and Human Rights, Supratman Andi Agtas, since 19 August 2024. The first minister was Soepomo.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Attorney General's Office of Indonesia</span>

The Attorney General's Office of the Republic of Indonesia is the competent authority to advise the Government of Indonesia on matters of law. It serves as the central organization for the Indonesian Public Prosecution Service. The Attorney General's Office is seated in the national capital Jakarta.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Islamic criminal law in Aceh</span> Sharia criminal law in Aceh, Indonesia

The province of Aceh in Indonesia enforces some provisions of Islamic criminal law, the sole Indonesian province to do so. In Aceh, Islamic criminal law is called jinayat. The laws that implement it are called Qanun Jinayat or Hukum Jinayat, roughly meaning "Islamic criminal code". Although the largely-secular laws of Indonesia apply in Aceh, the provincial government passed additional regulations, some derived from Islamic criminal law, after Indonesia authorized the province to enact regional regulations and granted Aceh special autonomy to implement Islamic law. Offences under the provisions include alcohol consumption, production and distribution, gambling, adultery, rape, sexual harassment, certain intimacies outside marriage, and certain homosexual acts. Punishments include caning, fines, and imprisonment. There is no provision for stoning; an attempt to introduce it in 2009 was vetoed by Governor Irwandi Yusuf. In 2016 Aceh processed 324 first instance court cases under Islamic criminal law, and carried out at least 100 caning sentences.

In Indonesia, a regional regulation is a regulation that is passed by Indonesian local governments and carry the force of law in that region. There are two levels of regional regulations. Provinces pass provincial regulation, while the second tier subdivisions of Indonesia, known as regencies and cities pass regency regulation and city regulation, respectively. Each type of regional regulation is passed by the region's parliamentary body together with their chief executive.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Indonesian Financial Transaction Reports and Analysis Center</span> Government agency to counter money laundering

The Indonesian Financial Transaction Reports and Analysis Center or INTRAC or PPATK is a government agency of Indonesia responsible for financial intelligence. The agency was formed in 2002 to prevent and eradicate suspected illicit financial flows as money laundering and provide information on terrorist financing.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Central Sumatra</span> Former province of Indonesia

Central Sumatra was a province in Indonesia whose territories included present day West Sumatra, Riau, Jambi, and the Riau Islands. Since 1957 this province has not been registered as an Indonesian province after it was dissolved by Ordinance-as-Act No. 19/1957 and divided into the provinces of West Sumatra, Riau and Jambi through Law No. 61/1958 by the Sukarno government.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Public Prosecution Service of Indonesia</span> Indonesian government agency

The Public Prosecution Service of the Republic of Indonesia is the government agency of Indonesia authorized for conducting public prosecution in Indonesia. It has other duties and authorities over certain matters as prescribed by laws.

The People's Consultative Assembly, the bicameral legislature of Indonesia, passed a series of resolutions of the People's Consultative Assembly or TAP MPR throughout the 1960s, to the very last issued in 2003.

The Law on Law Formulation or officially titled Law No. 13/2022 in regards of Second Amendment of Law No. 12/2011 on Law Formulation is a law that enables formulation of omnibus law in Indonesia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Indonesian Criminal Code</span> Criminal Code of Indonesia

The Indonesian Criminal Code, commonly known in Indonesian as Kitab Undang-Undang Hukum Pidana, abbreviated as KUH Pidana or KUHP), are laws and regulations that form the basis of criminal law in Indonesia. By deviating as necessary from Presidential Regulation dated 10 October 1945 No. 2, it stipulated that the criminal law regulations that are in effect are the Dutch criminal law regulations that existed on 8 March 1942. Currently, the Republic of Indonesia has its own Criminal Code, that is due to take effect in 2026.

The 2023 Omnibus Law on Job Creation, officially the Act No. 6 of 2023 On the Enaction of Government Regulation in Lieu of Act No. 2 of 2022 On Job Creation into Act is an Indonesian act which made the Government Regulation in Lieu of Act (Perpu) No. 2 of 2022 On Job Creation, a replacement of the Omnibus Law on Job Creation, permanent. The law was passed by the People's Representative Council on 21 March 2023. The law commenced on 31 March 2023.

Non-structural institutions or non-structural agencies are special organizations in Indonesia distinct from traditional government ministries and non-ministerial government bodies. Formed through certain legislative and executive acts, non-structural institutions are formed to support the overall functions of the state and government, addressing specific needs/tasks that cannot be as efficiently handled by existing ministries and agencies. Funding for these organizations come from the national budget (APBN).

References

  1. 1 2 Undang-Undang Republik Indonesia Nomor 19 Tahun 1964 Tentang Ketentuan-Ketentuan Pokok Kekuasaan Kehakiman (Law 19, Article 1) (in Indonesian). 1964.
  2. Undang-Undang nomor 12 tahun 2011 tentang Pembentukan Peraturan Perundang-Undangan [Act No 12 of 2011, Law Concerning Making Rules"] (Law 12). 2011.
  3. 1 2 The 1945 Constitution of The Republic of Indonesia  via Wikisource.
  4. Ketetapan MPR tentang Peninjauan Terhadap Materi dan Status Hukum Ketetapan Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat Sementara dan Ketetapan Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat Republik Indonesia Tahun 1960 sampai dengan 2002 (Resolutions of the People's Consultative Assembly I) (in Indonesian). 2003. Retrieved 22 December 2021.
  5. Sumber Hukum Dan Tata Urutan Peraturan Perundang-undangan (Resolutions of the People's Consultative Assembly III) (in Indonesian). People's Consultative Assembly. 2000.
  6. Undang-Undang Nomor 10 Tahun 2004 tentang Pembentukan Peraturan Perundang-Undangan (Law 10) (in Indonesian). 2004.
  7. 1 2 Undang-Undang Nomor 12 Tahun 2011 tentang Pembentukan Peraturan Perundang-Undangan (Law 12) (in Indonesian). 2011.
  8. Article 20(1), the 1945 Constitution of Indonesia.
  9. Article 5(1), the 1945 Constitution of Indonesia.
  10. Article 20(2), the 1945 Constitution of Indonesia.
  11. Article 20(4), the 1945 Constitution of Indonesia.
  12. Article 20(5), the 1945 Constitution of Indonesia.
  13. Article 20(3), the 1945 Constitution of Indonesia.
  14. "Ini Tiga Dasar dikeluarkannya Perppu | Indonesia Baik". indonesiabaik.id. Retrieved 22 December 2021.
  15. Undang-Undang Nomor 23 Tahun 2014 tentang Pemerintahan Daerah (Law 23) (in Indonesian). 2014.
  16. Tunardy, Wibowo T.; S.H.; M.Kn. (20 October 2020). "Sumber Hukum Materiil dan Sumber Hukum Formil". Jurnal Hukum. Retrieved 23 December 2021.
  17. M.H, Diana Kusumasari, S. H. (7 July 2018). "Tentang RV, HIR, RBG, AB dan Keberlakuan Perpres No. 68/2005 - Klinik Hukumonline". hukumonline.com (in Indonesian). Retrieved 23 December 2021.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  18. Mahardika, Ahmad Gelora (April 2019). "Constitutional Convention in Indonesian National Law System After the Reformation" (PDF). Jurnal Rechtsvinding. 8.
  19. "UPDATE: The Indonesian Legal System and Legal Research - GlobaLex". www.nyulawglobal.org. Retrieved 22 December 2021.
  20. "Konvensi Ketatanegaraan Dalam Sistem Hukum Nasional Di Indonesia Pasca Era Reformasi" [Constitutional Convention In Indonesia National Law System After The Reformation](PDF). Rechtsvinding (in Indonesian). 8 (1). 2019. ISSN   2089-9009.
  21. Syahbandir, Mahdi (2010). "Kedudukan Hukum Adat dalam Sistem Hukum". Kanun: Jurnal Ilmu Hukum (in Indonesian). 12 (1). ISSN   2527-8428.
  22. Priambodo, Bono Budi (2018). "Positioning Adat Law in the Indonesia's Legal System: Historical Discourse and Current Development on Customary Law". Udayana Journal of Law and Culture. 2 (2): 140–164. doi:10.24843/UJLC.2018.v02.i02.p02.
  23. Instruksi Presiden Nomor 1 Tahun 1991 Penyebarluasan Kompilasi Hukum Islam (Presidential Instructions 1) (in Indonesian). 1991.
  24. Undang-Undang Nomor 3 Tahun 2006 tentang Perubahan atas Undang-Undang Nomor 7 Tahun 1989 tentang Peradilan Agama (Law 3) (in Indonesian). 2006.
  25. Undang-undang Nomor 9 Tahun 1998 tentang Perubahan atas Undang-Undang Nomor 7 Tahun 1992 tentang Perbankan (Law 10) (in Indonesian). 1998.
  26. Undang-Undang Nomor 11 Tahun 2006 tentang Pemerintahan Aceh (Law 11) (in Indonesian). 2006.
  27. "Islamic Law and Criminal Justice in Aceh". Crisis Group. 31 July 2006. Retrieved 22 December 2021.
  28. Hukumonline. "Pusat Produk & Jasa Hukum Terpercaya di Indonesia | Hukumonline". hukumonline.com (in Indonesian). Retrieved 23 December 2021.
  29. "JDI MAHKAMAH AGUNG-RI". jdih.mahkamahagung.go.id. Retrieved 22 December 2021.
  30. Penal Code of Indonesia (PDF). 1982.
  31. "Indonesia's criminal code: what is it, why does it matter, and will it be passed?". the Guardian. 26 September 2019. Retrieved 6 December 2022.
  32. "Sex Outside Marriage Will Be Illegal Under Indonesia's Sweeping New Criminal Code". Time. Retrieved 6 December 2022.
  33. "UU No. 1 Tahun 2023 tentang Kitab Undang-Undang Hukum Pidana [JDIH BPK RI]". peraturan.bpk.go.id. Retrieved 5 January 2023.
  34. Jacob, Efryan R.T. (January–February 2017). "Pelaksanaan Pidana Mati Menurut Undang Undang Nomor 2 PNPS 1964" (PDF). Lex Crimen. 6.
  35. S.H, Ilman Hadi (7 July 2018). "Mengenai Hukuman Tutupan - Klinik Hukumonline". hukumonline.com (in Indonesian). Retrieved 25 December 2021.
  36. M.H, Togar S. M. Sijabat, S. H. (7 July 2018). "Perbedaan Antara HIR dan RBG - Klinik Hukumonline". hukumonline.com (in Indonesian). Retrieved 22 December 2021.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  37. Undang-Undang Nomor 16 Tahun 2019 tentang Perubahan atas Undang-undang Nomor 1 Tahun 1974 tentang Perkawinan (Law 16) (in Indonesian). 2019.
  38. Undang-Undang Nomor 1 Tahun 1974 tentang Perkawinan (Law 1) (in Indonesian). 1974.
  39. 1 2 "Perkawinan Campuran di Indonesia – Misael Law and Partners" . Retrieved 24 December 2021.
  40. Susetyo, Heru (7 July 2018). "Latar Belakang Pembentukan Kompilasi Hukum Islam". HukumOnline.
  41. Nayara Advocacy (7 December 2016). "Keberlakuan Putusan MK tentang Perjanjian Kawin Terhadap Perkawinan WNI" . Retrieved 27 December 2021.
  42. P, Eko; iangan (19 June 2021). "Alasan-alasan Yang Dapat Dijadikan Sebagai Dasar Untuk Mengajukan Permohonan Perceraian". EAP Lawyer. Retrieved 24 December 2021.
  43. Hamzani, Achmad Irwan (2015). "Nasab Anak Luar Kawin Pasca Putusan Mahkamah Konstitusi Nomor 46/PUU-VIII/2010" [The Descendants of Children Outside of Marriage After Constitutional Court Decision No. 46/PUU-VIII/2010](PDF). Jurnal Konstitutsi (in Indonesian). 12 (1).
  44. "In Indonesia, Interfaith Marriage is Legal - But With Many Obstacles". VOA. 3 May 2018. Retrieved 24 December 2021.
  45. "No authorisation for interfaith marriages, says Indonesia's Supreme Court". The Straits Times. 20 July 2023. ISSN   0585-3923 . Retrieved 4 August 2023.
  46. "Court Rejects Petition on Interfaith Marriage". en.mkri.id. Retrieved 4 August 2023.
  47. 1 2 Undang-Undang Nomor 40 Tahun 2007 tentang Perseroan Terbatas (Law 40) (in Indonesian). 2007.
  48. Undang-Undang Nomor 16 Tahun 2001 tentang Yayasan (Law 16) (in Indonesian). 2001.
  49. Undang-Undang Nomor 17 Tahun 2012 tentang Perkoperasian (Law 17) (in Indonesian). 2012.
  50. Permenkumham No. 3 Tahun 2016 tentang Tata Cara Pengajuan Permohonan Pengesahan Badan Hukum dan Persetujuan Perubahan Anggaran Dasar Perkumpulan (Minister of Laws and Human Rights Regulation 3) (in Indonesian). 2016.
  51. "Penanaman Modal Asing di Indonesia". Ministry of Investment.
  52. Undang-Undang nomor 5 tahun 1960 tentang Peraturan Dasar Pokok-Pokok Agraria (Law 5). 1960.
  53. Pasaribu, Theresia C. (10 June 2021). "Principles of Agrarian Law". Lexology. Leks&Co. Retrieved 28 December 2021.
  54. Rahmansyah, Denny; Tahir, Saprita (29 August 2019). "Categories of Property Rights in Indonesia". www.ssek.com. Retrieved 28 December 2021.
  55. "Merek". www.dgip.go.id. Retrieved 8 January 2022.
  56. 1 2 Undang-Undang Nomor 20 Tahun 2016 tentang Merek dan Indikasi Geografis (Law 20) (in Indonesian). 2016.
  57. "Paten". www.dgip.go.id. Retrieved 8 January 2022.
  58. Undang-Undang Nomor 13 Tahun 2016 tentang Paten (Law 13) (in Indonesian). 2016.
  59. "Desain Industri". www.dgip.go.id. Retrieved 8 January 2022.
  60. Undang-Undang Nomor 31 Tahun 2000 tentang Desain Industri (Law 31) (in Indonesian). 2000.
  61. "Hak Cipta". www.dgip.go.id. Retrieved 8 January 2022.
  62. Undang-Undang Nomor 28 Tahun 2014 tentang Hak Cipta (Law 28) (in Indonesian). 2014.
  63. "Indikasi Geografis". www.dgip.go.id. Retrieved 8 January 2022.
  64. "DTLST". www.dgip.go.id. Retrieved 8 January 2022.
  65. Undang-Undang Nomor 32 Tahun 2000 tentang Desain Tata Letak Sirkuit Terpadu (Law 32) (in Indonesian). 2000.
  66. "Rahasia Dagang". www.dgip.go.id. Retrieved 8 January 2022.
  67. Undang-Undang Nomor 30 Tahun 2000 tentang Rahasia Dagang (Law 30) (in Indonesian). 2000.
  68. Undang-Undang Nomor 29 Tahun 2000 tentang Perlindungan Varietas Tanaman (Law 29) (in Indonesian). 2000.
  69. "K.I. Komunal". www.dgip.go.id. Retrieved 8 January 2022.
  70. Permenkumham No. 13 Tahun 2017 tentang Data Kekayaan Intelektual Komunal (Ministry of Laws and Human Rights Regulation 13) (in Indonesian). 2017.
  71. Josua Gantan, 'Rule of Law Seen as Indonesia's Achilles Heel', The Jakarta Globe, 17 April 2014.
  72. Fedina S. Sundaryani, 'Judiciary facing 'severe'shortage of judges', The Jakarta Post, 26 February 2015.
  73. Tony Budidjaja, 'The future of Indonesia's legal profession: A lawyer's perspective', The Jakarta Post, 11 April 2013.