Problem gambling

Last updated

Problem gambling
Other namesLudopathy, ludomania, degenerate gambling, gambling addiction, compulsive gambling, gambling disorder
Gambling chips.jpg
Specialty Psychiatry, clinical psychology   OOjs UI icon edit-ltr-progressive.svg
Symptoms Spending a lot of money and time in casino/sports betting, Video game addiction [1]
Addiction and dependence glossary [2] [3] [4]
  • addiction – a biopsychosocial disorder characterized by persistent use of drugs (including alcohol) despite substantial harm and adverse consequences
  • addictive drug – psychoactive substances that with repeated use are associated with significantly higher rates of substance use disorders, due in large part to the drug's effect on brain reward systems
  • dependence – an adaptive state associated with a withdrawal syndrome upon cessation of repeated exposure to a stimulus (e.g., drug intake)
  • drug sensitization or reverse tolerance – the escalating effect of a drug resulting from repeated administration at a given dose
  • drug withdrawal – symptoms that occur upon cessation of repeated drug use
  • physical dependence – dependence that involves persistent physical–somatic withdrawal symptoms (e.g., fatigue and delirium tremens)
  • psychological dependence – dependence socially seen as being extremely mild compared to physical dependence (e.g., with enough willpower it could be overcome)
  • reinforcing stimuli – stimuli that increase the probability of repeating behaviors paired with them
  • rewarding stimuli – stimuli that the brain interprets as intrinsically positive and desirable or as something to approach
  • sensitization – an amplified response to a stimulus resulting from repeated exposure to it
  • substance use disorder – a condition in which the use of substances leads to clinically and functionally significant impairment or distress
  • tolerance – the diminishing effect of a drug resulting from repeated administration at a given dose

Problem gambling, ludopathy [5] or ludomania is repetitive gambling behavior despite harm and negative consequences. Problem gambling may be diagnosed as a mental disorder according to DSM-5 if certain diagnostic criteria are met. Pathological gambling is a common disorder associated with social and family costs.

Contents

The DSM-5 has re-classified the condition as an addictive disorder, with those affected exhibiting many similarities to those with substance addictions. The term gambling addiction has long been used in the recovery movement. [6] Pathological gambling was long considered by the American Psychiatric Association to be an impulse-control disorder rather than an addiction. [7] However, data suggests a closer relationship between pathological gambling and substance use disorders than exists between PG and obsessive–compulsive disorder, mainly because the behaviors in problem gambling and most primary substance use disorders (i.e., those not resulting from a desire to "self-medicate" for another condition such as depression) seek to activate the brain's reward mechanisms, while the behaviors characterizing obsessive-compulsive disorder are prompted by overactive and misplaced signals from the brain's fear mechanisms. [8]

Problem gambling is an addictive behavior with a high comorbidity with alcohol problems. [9] A common tendency shared by people who have a gambling addiction is impulsivity.

Signs and symptoms

Research by governments in Australia led to a universal definition for that country which appears to be the only research-based definition not to use diagnostic criteria: "Problem gambling is characterized by many difficulties in limiting money and/or time spent on gambling which leads to adverse consequences for the gambler, others, or for the community." [10] The University of Maryland Medical Center defines pathological gambling as "being unable to resist impulses to gamble, which can lead to severe personal or social consequences". [11]

Most other definitions of problem gambling can usually be simplified to any gambling that causes harm to the gambler or someone else in any way; however, these definitions are usually coupled with descriptions of the type of harm or the use of diagnostic criteria.[ citation needed ] The DSM-V has since reclassified pathological gambling as gambling disorder and has listed the disorder under substance-related and addictive disorders rather than impulse-control disorders. This is due to the symptomatology of the disorder resembling an addiction not dissimilar to that of a substance use disorder. [12] To be diagnosed, an individual must have at least four of the following symptoms in 12 months: [13]

Factors that lead to gambling addiction

Mayo Clinic specialists state that compulsive gambling may result from biological, genetic, and environmental factors, such as: [14]

Other studies add the following triggers to the mentioned above: [16]

If not treated, problem gambling may cause severe and lasting effects on an individual's life: [17]

Suicide rates

A gambler who does not receive treatment for pathological gambling when in a desperation phase may contemplate suicide. [18] Problem gambling is often associated with increased suicidal ideation and attempts compared to the general population. [19] [20]

Early onset of problem gambling may increase the lifetime risk of suicide. [21] Both comorbid substance use [22] [23] and comorbid mental disorders increase the risk of suicide in people with problem gambling. [24] A 2010 Australian hospital study found that 17% of suicidal patients admitted to the Alfred Hospital's emergency department were problem gamblers. [25]

Mechanisms

Biology

According to the Illinois Institute for Addiction Recovery, evidence indicates that pathological gambling is an addiction similar to chemical addiction. [26] It has been observed that some pathological gamblers have lower levels of norepinephrine than normal gamblers. [27] According to a study conducted by Alec Roy, formerly at the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, norepinephrine is secreted under stress, arousal, or thrill, so pathological gamblers gamble to make up for their under-dosage. [28]

Studies have compared pathological gamblers to substance addicts, concluding that addicted gamblers display more physical symptoms during withdrawal. [29]

Deficiencies in serotonin might also contribute to compulsive behavior, including a gambling addiction. There are three important points discovered after these antidepressant studies: [30]

  1. Antidepressants can reduce pathological gambling when there is an effect on serotonergic reuptake inhibitors and 5-HT1/5-HT2 receptor antagonists.
  2. Pathological gambling, as part of obsessive-compulsive disorder, requires the higher doses of antidepressants as is usually required for depressive disorders.
  3. In cases where participants do not have or have minimal symptoms of anxiety or depression, antidepressants still have those effect.

A limited study was presented at a conference in Berlin, suggesting opioid release differs in problem gamblers from the general population, but in a very different way from people with a substance use disorder. [31]

The findings in one review indicated the sensitization theory is responsible. [32] Dopamine dysregulation syndrome has been observed in the aforementioned theory in people with regard to such activities as gambling. [33]

Some medical authors suggest that the biomedical model of problem gambling may be unhelpful because it focuses only on individuals. These authors point out that social factors may be a far more important determinant of gambling behavior than brain chemicals, and they suggest that a social model may be more useful in understanding the issue. [34] For example, an apparent increase in problem gambling in the UK may be better understood as a consequence of changes in legislation which came into force in 2007 and enabled casinos, bookmakers, and online betting sites to advertise on TV and radio for the first time and which eased restrictions on the opening of betting shops and online gambling sites. [35]

Pathological gambling is similar to many other impulse-control disorders such as kleptomania. [36] According to evidence from both community- and clinic-based studies, individuals who are pathological gamblers are highly likely to exhibit other psychiatric problems concurrently, including substance use disorders, mood and anxiety disorders, or personality disorders. [37]

Pathological gambling shows several similarities with substance use disorders. There is a partial overlap in diagnostic criteria; pathological gamblers are also likely to have a substance use disorder. The "telescoping phenomenon" reflects the rapid development from initial to problematic behavior in women compared with men. This phenomenon was initially described for alcoholism, but it has also been applied to pathological gambling. Also, biological data support a relationship between pathological gambling and substance use disorder. [30] A comprehensive UK Gambling Commission study from 2018 has also hinted at the link between gambling addiction and a reduction in physical activity, poor diet, and overall well-being. The study links problem gambling to a myriad of issues affecting relationships, and social stability.

There have also been studies that showcase factors like gender and age can affect how a person is affected by gambling. Where the probability of addiction can be 11% stronger in men than in women, and the age range of 19-29 has the highest risk of developing problem gambling or pathological gambling habits. [38]

Psychological

Several psychological mechanisms are thought to be implicated in the development and maintenance of problem gambling. [39] First, reward processing seems to be less sensitive with problem gamblers.[ clarification needed ] Second, some individuals use problem gambling as an escape from the problems in their lives (an example of negative reinforcement). Third, personality factors such as narcissism, risk-seeking, sensation-seeking, and impulsivity play a role. Fourth, problem gamblers have several cognitive biases, including the illusion of control, [40] unrealistic optimism, overconfidence and the gambler's fallacy (the incorrect belief that a series of random events tends to self-correct so that the absolute frequencies of each of various outcomes balance each other out). Fifth, problem gamblers represent a chronic state of a behavioral spin process, a gambling spin, as described by the criminal spin theory.[ clarification needed ] [41]

Spain's gambling watchdog has updated its 2019–2020 Responsible Gaming Program, classifying problem gambling as a mental disorder.[ citation needed ]

Diagnosis

The most common instrument used to screen for "probable pathological gambling" behavior is the South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS) developed by Lesieur and Blume (1987) at the South Oaks Hospital in New York City. [42] In recent years the use of SOGS has declined due to a number of criticisms, including that it overestimates false positives (Battersby, Tolchard, Thomas & Esterman, 2002).

The DSM-IV diagnostic criteria presented as a checklist is an alternative to SOGS, it focuses on the psychological motivations underpinning problem gambling and was developed by the American Psychiatric Association. It consists of ten diagnostic criteria. One frequently used screening measure based upon the DSM-IV criteria is the National Opinion Research Center DSM Screen for Gambling Problems (NODS). The Canadian Problem Gambling Inventory (CPGI) and the Victorian Gambling Screen (VGS) are newer assessment measures. The Problem Gambling Severity Index, which focuses on the harms associated with problem gambling, is composed of nine items from the longer CPGI. [43] The VGS is also harm based and includes 15 items. The VGS has proven validity and reliability in population studies as well as Adolescents and clinic gamblers.[ citation needed ]

Treatment

Most treatment for problem gambling involves counseling, step-based programs, self-help, peer-support, medication, or a combination of these. However, no one treatment is considered to be most efficacious and, in the United States, no medications have been approved for the treatment of pathological gambling by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA).

Gamblers Anonymous (GA) is a commonly used treatment for gambling problems. Modeled after Alcoholics Anonymous, GA is a twelve-step program that emphasizes a mutual-support approach. There are three in-patient treatment centers in North America. [44] One form of counseling, cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) has been shown to reduce symptoms and gambling-related urges. This type of therapy focuses on the identification of gambling-related thought processes, mood and cognitive distortions that increase one's vulnerability to out-of-control gambling. Additionally, CBT approaches frequently utilize skill-building techniques geared toward relapse prevention, assertiveness and gambling refusal, problem solving and reinforcement of gambling-inconsistent activities and interests. [45]

As to behavioral treatment, some recent research supports the use of both activity scheduling and desensitization in the treatment of gambling problems. [46] In general, behavior analytic research in this area is growing [47] There is evidence that the SSRI paroxetine is efficacious in the treatment of pathological gambling. [48] Additionally, for patients with both pathological gambling and a comorbid bipolar spectrum condition, sustained-release lithium has shown efficacy in a preliminary trial. [49] The opioid antagonist drug nalmefene has also been trialled quite successfully for the treatment of compulsive gambling. [50] Group concepts based on CBT, such as the metacognitive training for problem gambling [51] have also proven effective.

Step-based programs

12 Step–based programs such as Gamblers Anonymous are specific to gambling and generic to healing addiction, creating financial health, and improving mental wellness. Commercial alternatives that are designed for clinical intervention, using the best of health science and applied education practices, have been used as patient-centered tools for intervention since 2007. They include measured efficacy and resulting recovery metrics.[ medical citation needed ]

Motivational interviewing

Motivational interviewing is one of the treatments of compulsive gambling. The motivational interviewer's basic goal is promoting readiness to change through thinking and resolving mixed feelings. Avoiding aggressive confrontation, argument, labeling, blaming, and direct persuasion, the interviewer supplies empathy and advice to compulsive gamblers who define their own goal. The focus is on promoting freedom of choice and encouraging confidence in the ability to change. [52]

Peer support

A growing method of treatment is peer support. With the advancement of online gambling, many gamblers experiencing issues use various online peer-support groups to aid their recovery. This protects their anonymity while allowing them to attempt recovery on their own, often without having to disclose their issues to loved ones.[ medical citation needed ]

Self-help

Research into self-help for problem gamblers has shown benefits. [53] A study by Wendy Slutske of the University of Missouri concluded one-third of pathological gamblers overcome it by natural recovery. [54]

Pharmaceutical treatments

Numerous pharmaceutical approaches to treating gambling addiction have been suggested including antidepressants, atypical antipsychotic agents, mood stabilizers, and opioid antagonists, however the best approach for treatment, treatment regime including dosage and timing is not clear. [55] There is some evidence to suggest that opioid antagonists, for example, naltrexone or nalmefene, and atypical antipsychotics such as olanzapine, may help reduce the severity of gambling symptoms in the short-term, however it is not clear if these medications are effective at improving other psychological symptoms associated with this disorder or for longer term symptom relief from problem gambling. [55] The evidence suggesting the effectiveness of mood stabilizers is not clear. [55]

Self-exclusion

Gambling self-exclusion (voluntary exclusion) programs are available in the US, the UK, Canada, Australia, South Africa, France, and other countries. They seem to help some (but not all) problem gamblers to gamble less often. [56]

Some experts maintain that casinos in general arrange for self-exclusion programs as a public relations measure without actually helping many of those with problem gambling issues. A campaign of this type merely "deflects attention away from problematic products and industries", according to Natasha Dow Schull, a cultural anthropologist at New York University and author of the book Addiction by Design. [57]

There is also a question as to the effectiveness of such programs, which can be difficult to enforce. [58] In the province of Ontario, Canada, for example, the Self-Exclusion program operated by the government's Ontario Lottery and Gaming Corporation (OLG) is not effective, according to investigation conducted by the television series, revealed in late 2017. |"Gambling addicts ... said that while on the ... self-exclusion list, they entered OLG properties on a regular basis" in spite of the facial recognition technology in place at the casinos, according to the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. As well, a CBC journalist who tested the system found that he was able to enter Ontario casinos and gamble on four distinct occasions, in spite of having been registered and photographed for the self-exclusion program. An OLG spokesman provided this response when questioned by the CBC: "We provide supports to self-excluders by training our staff, by providing disincentives, by providing facial recognition, by providing our security officers to look for players. No one element is going to be foolproof because it is not designed to be foolproof". [57]

Impact (Australia)

According to the Productivity Commission's 2010 final report into gambling, the social cost of problem gambling is close to 4.7 billion dollars a year. Some of the harms resulting from problem gambling include depression, suicide, lower work productivity, job loss, relationship breakdown, crime and bankruptcy. [59] A survey conducted in 2008 found that the most common motivation for fraud was problem gambling, with each incident averaging a loss of $1.1 million. [59] According to Darren R. Christensen. Nicki A. Dowling, Alun C. Jackson and Shane A. Thomas, a survey done from 1994 to 2008 in Tasmania gave results that gambling participation rates have risen rather than fallen over this period. [60]

Prevalence

Europe

In Europe, the rate of problem gambling is typically 0.5 to 3 percent. [61] The "British Gambling Prevalence Survey 2007", conducted by the United Kingdom Gambling Commission, found approximately 0.6 percent of the adult population had problem gambling issues—the same percentage as in 1999. [62] The highest prevalence of problem gambling was found among those who participated in spread betting (14.7%), fixed odds betting terminals (11.2%), and betting exchanges (9.8%). [62] In Norway, a December 2007 study showed the amount of current problem gamblers was 0.7 percent. [63]

With gambling addiction on the rise worldwide and across Europe in particular, those calling gambling a disease have been gaining grounds. The UK Gambling Commission announced a significant shift in their approach to gambling[ when? ] through their reclassification of gambling as a disease, and therefore that it should be addressed adequately by the NHS.

The World Health Organization has also classified gambling a disease. In its 72nd World Health Assembly held on Saturday, May 25, 2019, ‘gaming disorder’ was recognized as an official illness. The 194-member meet added excessive gaming to a classified list of diseases as it revised its International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD-11).[ citation needed ]

North America

Lizbeth García Quevedo, director of the Coordination with Federal Entities (CONADIC), spoke of pathological gambling as a strong addiction in Mexico: "It has very similar behaviors, that is why some experts consider it an addiction because it is similar in the behaviors, in the origins, some risk factors that can trigger pathological gambling, it can also trigger drug consumption". In Mexico there could be between one and three million people addicted to gambling. "They should be aware of what their children are doing, and on the other hand, they should motivate pro-active gambling, healthy gambling", commented Lizbeth García Quevedo. The Ministry of Health document highlights that a study on pathological gambling that analyzed 46 studies carried out in Canada, the United States, Australia, Sweden, Norway, England, Switzerland and Spain, revealed that the prevalence of pathological gambling is relatively higher among adolescents, which shows the continuity of the problem considering that many pathological gamblers state that they started their gambling behavior at an early age. [64]

In the United States, the percentage of pathological gamblers was 0.6 percent, and the percentage of problem gamblers was 2.3 percent in 2008. [65] Studies commissioned by the National Gambling Impact Study Commission Act has shown the prevalence rate ranges from 0.1 percent to 0.6 percent. [66] Nevada has the highest percentage of pathological gambling; a 2002 report estimated 2.2 to 3.6 percent of Nevada residents over the age of 18 could be called problem gamblers. Also, 2.7 to 4.3 percent could be called probable pathological gamblers. [67]

According to a 1997 meta-analysis by Harvard Medical School's division on addictions, 1.1 percent of the adult population of the United States and Canada could be called pathological gamblers. [68] A 1996 study estimated 1.2 to 1.9 percent of adults in Canada were pathological. [69] In Ontario, a 2006 report showed 2.6 percent of residents experienced "moderate gambling problems" and 0.8 percent had "severe gambling problems". [70] In Quebec, an estimated 0.8 percent of the adult population were pathological gamblers in 2002. [71] Although most who gamble do so without harm, approximately 6 million American adults are addicted to gambling. [72]

According to a survey of 11th and 12th graders in Wood County, Ohio found that the percentage who reported being unable to control their gambling rose to 8.3 percent in 2022, up from just 4.2 percent in 2018. The reasons for the increase cited, are the time spent online during the COVID-19 pandemic, gambling-like elements put into video games, and the increased legalization of sports betting in a number of U.S. states. [73]

According to Jennifer Trimpey, as the legality of online sport betting and online casino gambling increase across the United States, almost all governments of states with legal online gambling offer state-run self-exclusion programs, and most major online betting operators provide their own self-exclusion programs as well. [74]

Signs of a gambling problem include: [72] [ medical citation needed ]

South America

For Isabel Sánchez Sosa, coordinator of the Compulsive Gamblers Association of Argentina, "gambling addiction is growing a lot in the country because the offer is impressive" and in this sense she asserted that the presence of bingos is a common issue in all neighborhoods. In the province of Buenos Aires there are 46 bingos. [75]

Oceania (Australia)

Casinos and poker machines in pubs and clubs facilitate problem gambling in Australia. The building of new hotels and casinos has been described as "one of the most active construction markets in Australia"; for example, AUD$860 million was allocated to rebuild and expand the Star Complex in Sydney. [76]

A 2010 study, conducted in the Northern Territory by researchers from the Australian National University (ANU) and Southern Cross University (SCU), found that the proximity of a person's residence to a gambling venue is significant in terms of prevalence. Harmful gambling in the study was prevalent among those living within 100 metres of any gambling venue, and was over 50% higher than among those living ten kilometres from a venue. The study's data stated:

Specifically, people who lived 100 metres from their favourite venue visited an estimated average of 3.4 times per month. This compared to an average of 2.8 times per month for people living one kilometre away, and 2.2 times per month for people living ten kilometres away. [77]

According to the Productivity Commission's 2016 report into gambling, 0.5% to 1% (80,000 to 160,000) [78] of the Australian adult population had significant problems resulting from gambling. A further 1.4% to 2.1% (230,000 to 350,000) of the Australian adult population experienced moderate risks making them likely to be vulnerable to problem gambling. [79] Estimates show that problem gamblers account for an average of 41% of the total gaming machine spending. [79]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Obsessive–compulsive personality disorder</span> Personality disorder involving orderliness

Obsessive–compulsive personality disorder (OCPD) is a cluster C personality disorder marked by a spectrum of obsessions with rules, lists, schedules, and order, among other things. Symptoms are usually present by the time a person reaches adulthood, and are visible in a variety of situations. The cause of OCPD is thought to involve a combination of genetic and environmental factors, namely problems with attachment.

Pornography addiction is the scientifically controversial application of an addiction model to the use of pornography. Pornography use may be part of compulsive behavior, with negative consequences to one's physical, mental, social, or financial well-being. While the World Health Organization's ICD-11 (2022) has recognized compulsive sexual behaviour disorder (CSBD) as an "impulsive control disorder". CSBD is not an addiction, and the American Psychiatric Association's DSM-5 (2013) and the DSM-5-TR (2022) do not classify compulsive pornography consumption as a mental disorder or a behavioral addiction.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kleptomania</span> Inability to resist the urge to steal

Kleptomania is the inability to resist the urge to steal items, usually for reasons other than personal use or financial gain. First described in 1816, kleptomania is classified in psychiatry as an impulse control disorder. Some of the main characteristics of the disorder suggest that kleptomania could be an obsessive-compulsive spectrum disorder, but also share similarities with addictive and mood disorders.

A food addiction or eating addiction is any behavioral addiction characterized primarily by the compulsive consumption of palatable and hyperpalatable food items. Such foods often have high sugar, fat, and salt contents (HFSS), and markedly activate the reward system in humans and other animals. Those with eating addictions often overconsume such foods despite the adverse consequences associated with their overconsumption.

Impulse-control disorder (ICD) is a class of psychiatric disorders characterized by impulsivity – failure to resist a temptation, an urge, or an impulse; or having the inability to not speak on a thought. Many psychiatric disorders feature impulsivity, including substance-related disorders, behavioral addictions, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, autism spectrum disorder, fetal alcohol spectrum disorders, antisocial personality disorder, borderline personality disorder, conduct disorder and some mood disorders.

Substance dependence, also known as drug dependence, is a biopsychological situation whereby an individual's functionality is dependent on the necessitated re-consumption of a psychoactive substance because of an adaptive state that has developed within the individual from psychoactive substance consumption that results in the experience of withdrawal and that necessitates the re-consumption of the drug. A drug addiction, a distinct concept from substance dependence, is defined as compulsive, out-of-control drug use, despite negative consequences. An addictive drug is a drug which is both rewarding and reinforcing. ΔFosB, a gene transcription factor, is now known to be a critical component and common factor in the development of virtually all forms of behavioral and drug addictions, but not dependence.

Sexual addiction is a state characterized by compulsive participation or engagement in sexual activity, particularly sexual intercourse, despite negative consequences. The concept is contentious; as of 2023, sexual addiction is not a clinical diagnosis in either the DSM or ICD medical classifications of diseases and medical disorders, which instead categorize such behaviors under labels such as compulsive sexual behavior.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Video game addiction</span> Addiction to computer and video games

Video game addiction (VGA), also known as gaming disorder or internet gaming disorder, is generally defined as a psychological addiction that is problematic, compulsive use of video games that results in significant impairment to an individual's ability to function in various life domains over a prolonged period of time. This and associated concepts have been the subject of considerable research, debate, and discussion among experts in several disciplines and has generated controversy within the medical, scientific, and gaming communities. Such disorders can be diagnosed when an individual engages in gaming activities at the cost of fulfilling daily responsibilities or pursuing other interests without regard for the negative consequences. As defined by the ICD-11, the main criterion for this disorder is a lack of self control over gaming.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Excoriation disorder</span> Medical condition

Excoriation disorder, more commonly known as dermatillomania, is a mental disorder on the obsessive–compulsive spectrum that is characterized by the repeated urge or impulse to pick at one's own skin, to the extent that either psychological or physical damage is caused.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Television addiction</span> Proposed addiction model

Television addiction is a proposed addiction model associated with maladaptive or compulsive behavior associated with watching television programming.

An addictive behavior is a behavior, or a stimulus related to a behavior, that is both rewarding and reinforcing, and is associated with the development of an addiction. There are two main forms of addiction: substance use disorders and behavioral addiction. The parallels and distinctions between behavioral addictions and other compulsive behavior disorders like bulimia nervosa and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) are still being researched by behavioral scientists.

Shopping addiction is characterized by an eagerness to purchase unnecessary or superfluous things and a lack of impulse control when it comes to shopping. It is a concept similar to compulsive buying disorder (oniomania), but usually has a more psychosocial perspective, or is viewed as a drug-free addiction like addiction to gambling, Internet, or video games. However, there is "still debate on whether other less recognized forms of impulsive behaviors, such as compulsive buying [...] can be conceptualized as addictions."

Gamblers Anonymous (GA) is an international fellowship of people who have a compulsive gambling problem. They meet regularly to share their "experiences, strength and hope", so they can help each other solve the problems compulsive gambling has created in their lives, and to help others recover from the addiction of compulsive gambling. The only requirement for membership is a desire to stop gambling, as stated in the GA Combo book page 2.

Compulsive buying disorder (CBD) is characterized by an obsession with shopping and buying behavior that causes adverse consequences. It "is experienced as a recurring, compelling and irresistible–uncontrollable urge, in acquiring goods that lack practical utility and very low cost resulting in excessive, expensive and time-consuming retail activity [that is] typically prompted by negative affectivity" and results in "gross social, personal and/or financial difficulties". Most people with CBD meet the criteria for a personality disorder. Compulsive buying can also be found among people with Parkinson's disease or frontotemporal dementia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Internet addiction disorder</span> Excessive internet usage that causes psychological disorders

Internet addiction "disorder" (IAD), also known as problematic internet use, or pathological internet use, is a problematic compulsive use of the internet, particularly on social media, that impairs an individual's function over a prolonged period of time. Young people are at particular risk of developing internet addiction disorder, with case studies highlighting students whose academic performance declines as they spend more time online. Some experience health consequences from loss of sleep as they stay up to continue scrolling, chatting, and gaming.

Behavioral addiction, process addiction, or non-substance-related disorder is a form of addiction that involves a compulsion to engage in a rewarding non-substance-related behavior – sometimes called a natural reward – despite any negative consequences to the person's physical, mental, social or financial well-being. In the brain's reward system, a gene transcription factor known as ΔFosB has been identified as a necessary common factor involved in both behavioral and drug addictions, which are associated with the same set of neural adaptations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Substance use disorder</span> Continual use of drugs (including alcohol) despite detrimental consequences

Substance use disorder (SUD) is the persistent use of drugs despite substantial harm and adverse consequences to self and others. Related terms include substance use problems and problematic drug or alcohol use.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Addiction</span> Disorder resulting in compulsive behaviours

Addiction is a neuropsychological disorder characterized by a persistent and intense urge to use a drug or engage in a behavior that produces natural reward, despite substantial harm and other negative consequences. Repetitive drug use often alters brain function in ways that perpetuate craving, and weakens self-control. This phenomenon – drugs reshaping brain function – has led to an understanding of addiction as a brain disorder with a complex variety of psychosocial as well as neurobiological factors that are implicated in the development of addiction.

Compulsive sexual behaviour disorder (CSBD), is an impulse control disorder. CSBD manifests as a pattern of behavior involving intense preoccupation with sexual fantasies and behaviours that cause significant levels of psychological distress, are inappropriately used to cope with psychological stress, cannot be voluntarily curtailed, and risk or cause harm to oneself or others. This disorder can also cause impairment in social, occupational, personal, or other important functions. CSBD is not an addiction, and is typically used to describe behavior, rather than "sexual addiction".

Nancy M. Petry was a psychologist known for her research on behavioral treatments for addictive disorders, behavioral pharmacology, impulsivity and compulsive gambling. She was Professor of Medicine at the University of Connecticut Health Center. Petry served as a member of the American Psychiatric Association Workgroup on Substance Use Disorders for the DSM-5 and chaired the Subcommittee on Non-Substance Behavioral Addictions. The latter category includes Internet addiction disorder and problem gambling. She also served as a member of the Board of Advisors of Children and Screens: Institute of Digital Media and Child Development.

References

  1. ↑ David Zendle; Rachel Meyer; Harriet Over (June 2019). "Adolescents and loot boxes: links with problem gambling and motivations for purchase". Royal Society Open Science. 6 (6): 190049. Bibcode:2019RSOS....690049Z. doi: 10.1098/rsos.190049 . PMC   6599795 . PMID   31312481.
  2. ↑ Nestler EJ (December 2013). "Cellular basis of memory for addiction". Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience. 15 (4): 431–443. PMC   3898681 . PMID   24459410. Despite the importance of numerous psychosocial factors, at its core, drug addiction involves a biological process: the ability of repeated exposure to a drug of abuse to induce changes in a vulnerable brain that drive the compulsive seeking and taking of drugs, and loss of control over drug use, that define a state of addiction. ... A large body of literature has demonstrated that such ΔFosB induction in D1-type [nucleus accumbens] neurons increases an animal's sensitivity to drug as well as natural rewards and promotes drug self-administration, presumably through a process of positive reinforcement ... Another ΔFosB target is cFos: as ΔFosB accumulates with repeated drug exposure it represses c-Fos and contributes to the molecular switch whereby ΔFosB is selectively induced in the chronic drug-treated state.41 ... Moreover, there is increasing evidence that, despite a range of genetic risks for addiction across the population, exposure to sufficiently high doses of a drug for long periods of time can transform someone who has relatively lower genetic loading into an addict.
  3. ↑ Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE (2009). "Chapter 15: Reinforcement and Addictive Disorders". In Sydor A, Brown RY (eds.). Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. pp. 364–375. ISBN   978-0-07-148127-4.
  4. ↑ Volkow ND, Koob GF, McLellan AT (January 2016). "Neurobiologic Advances from the Brain Disease Model of Addiction". New England Journal of Medicine. 374 (4): 363–371. doi:10.1056/NEJMra1511480. PMC   6135257 . PMID   26816013. Substance-use disorder: A diagnostic term in the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) referring to recurrent use of alcohol or other drugs that causes clinically and functionally significant impairment, such as health problems, disability, and failure to meet major responsibilities at work, school, or home. Depending on the level of severity, this disorder is classified as mild, moderate, or severe.
    Addiction: A term used to indicate the most severe, chronic stage of substance-use disorder, in which there is a substantial loss of self-control, as indicated by compulsive drug taking despite the desire to stop taking the drug. In the DSM-5, the term addiction is synonymous with the classification of severe substance-use disorder.
  5. ↑ Zollinger, Manfred (March 31, 2016). Random Riches: Gambling Past & Present. Routledge. p. 34. ISBN   978-1-317-07156-3 . Retrieved October 30, 2024.
  6. ↑ Eades, John (2003). Gambling Addiction: The Problem, the Pain, and the Path to Recovery . Vine Books. ISBN   978-0-8307-3425-2.[ page needed ]
  7. ↑ Petry, Nancy (September 2006). "Should the Scope of Addictive Behaviors be Broadened to Include Pathological Gambling?". Addiction. 101 (s1): 152–60. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2006.01593.x. PMID   16930172.
  8. ↑ Potenza, M. N. (October 12, 2008). "The neurobiology of pathological gambling and drug addiction: an overview and new findings". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 363 (1507): 3181–3189. doi:10.1098/rstb.2008.0100. PMC   2607329 . PMID   18640909.
  9. ↑ Grant, Jon E.; Chamberlain, Samuel R. (April 20, 2020). "Gambling and substance use: Comorbidity and treatment implications". Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry. 99: 109852. doi:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2019.109852. ISSN   0278-5846.
  10. ↑ Problem Gambling and Harm: Towards a National Definition (PDF) (Report). gamblingresearch.org.au. p. i. Archived from the original (PDF) on August 19, 2006.
  11. ↑ Vorvick, Linda; Merrill, Michelle (February 18, 2010). "Pathological Gambling". University of Maryland Medical Center . Retrieved April 4, 2012.
  12. ↑ Christensen, D. R.; Jackson, Alun C.; Dowling, Nicki A.; Volberg, Rachel A.; Thomas, Shane A. (2014). "An Examination of a Proposed DSM-IV Pathological Gambling Hierarchy in a Treatment Seeking Population: Similarities with Substance Dependence and Evidence for Three Classification Systems". Journal of Gambling Studies. 31 (3): 1–20. doi:10.1007/s10899-014-9449-2. hdl: 10133/3418 . PMID   24627139. S2CID   728917.
  13. ↑ American Psychiatric Association (May 18, 2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing.
  14. ↑ "Gambling addiction: Symptoms, triggers, and treatment". www.medicalnewstoday.com. June 19, 2018. Retrieved November 4, 2021.
  15. ↑ Ivoska, William (2022). "Behavioral Health Barometer Wood County Youth" (PDF). barometer.2022.final.pdf. Retrieved April 24, 2023.
  16. ↑ Potenza, Marc N; Fiellin, David A; Heninger, George R; Rounsaville, Bruce J; Mazure, Carolyn M (September 2002). "Gambling". Journal of General Internal Medicine. 17 (9): 721–732. doi:10.1046/j.1525-1497.2002.10812.x. ISSN   0884-8734. PMC   1495100 . PMID   12220370.
  17. ↑ "Compulsive gambling - Symptoms and causes". Mayo Clinic. Retrieved November 4, 2021.
  18. ↑ Paul, Laura. "High Stakes: Teens Gambling with Their Futures". Disney family.com. Disney. Archived from the original on July 16, 2011.
  19. ↑ Moreyra, Paula; Ibáñez, Angela; Saiz-Ruiz, Jerónimo; Nissenson, Kore; Blanco, Carlos (2000). "Review of the Phenomenology, Etiology and Treatment of Pathological Gambling". German Journal of Psychiatry. 3 (2): 37–52. ISSN   1433-1055.
  20. ↑ Volberg, Rachel (March 2002). "The Epidemiology of Pathological Gambling". Psychiatric Annals. 32 (3): 171–178. doi:10.3928/0048-5713-20020301-06.
  21. ↑ Kaminer, Yifrah; Burleson, Joseph; Jadamec, Agnes (September 2002). "Gambling Behavior in Adolescent Substance Abuse". Substance Abuse. 23 (3): 191–198. doi:10.1080/08897070209511489. PMID   12444352. S2CID   45274599.
  22. ↑ Kausch, Otto (December 2003). "Patterns of Substance Abuse Among Treatment-Seeking Pathological Gamblers". Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment. 25 (4): 263–270. doi:10.1016/S0740-5472(03)00117-X. PMID   14693255.
  23. ↑ Ladd, George; Petry, Nancy (August 2003). "A Comparison of Pathological Gamblers with and without Substance Abuse Treatment Histories". Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology . 11 (3): 202–209. doi:10.1037/1064-1297.11.3.202. PMID   12940499.
  24. ↑ Kausch, Otto (September 2003). "Suicide Attempts Among Veterans Seeking Treatment for Pathological Gambling". Journal of Clinical Psychiatry. 64 (9): 1031–1038. doi:10.4088/JCP.v64n0908. PMID   14628978.
  25. ↑ Hagan, Kate (April 21, 2010). "Gambling linked to one in five suicidal patients". The Age. Melbourne. Retrieved May 7, 2012.
  26. ↑ "Illinois Institute for Addiction Recovery – WEEK News 25 – News, Sports, Weather – Peoria, Illinois". Archived from the original on May 5, 2015. Retrieved June 7, 2015.
  27. ↑ "We Put Troubled Lives Back Together". CINewsNow.com. Broadcast Interactive. Archived from the original on June 29, 2012. Retrieved May 7, 2012.
  28. ↑ Roy, Alec; Adinoff, Brian; Roehrich, Laurie; Lamparski, Danuta; Custer, Robert; Lorenz, Valerie; Barbaccia, Maria; Guidotti, Alessandro; Costa, Erminio; Linnoila, Markku (April 1988). "Pathological Gambling: A Psychobiological Study". Archives of General Psychiatry. 45 (4): 369–373. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1988.01800280085011. PMID   2451490.
  29. ↑ Griffiths, Mark (November 2003). "Action plan: Problem Gambling". The Psychologist. 16 (11): 582–585.
  30. 1 2 Grant, Jon E.; Kim, Suck Won (September 1, 2006). "Medication Management of Pathological Gambling". Minnesota Medicine. 89 (9): 44–48. ISSN   0026-556X. PMC   1857322 . PMID   17024925.
  31. ↑ Shweta Iyer (October 18, 2014). "Gambling Addicts' Brains Don't Have The Same Opioid Systems As Others" . Retrieved September 3, 2015. (source: Mick I, et al. Endogenous opioid release in pathological gamblers after an oral amphetamine challenge. At The European College of Neuropsychopharmacology Congress. 2014.)
  32. ↑ Probst, Catharina C.; van Eimeren, Thilo (2013). "The Functional Anatomy of Impulse Control Disorders". Current Neurology and Neuroscience Reports. 13 (10): 386. doi:10.1007/s11910-013-0386-8. ISSN   1528-4042. PMC   3779310 . PMID   23963609.
  33. ↑ Olsen, Christopher M. (2011). "Natural Rewards, Neuroplasticity, and Non-Drug Addictions". Neuropharmacology. 61 (7): 1109–1122. doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2011.03.010. ISSN   0028-3908. PMC   3139704 . PMID   21459101.
  34. ↑ Moscrop, A. (2011). "Medicalisation, morality, and addiction: Why we should be wary of problem gamblers in primary care". British Journal of General Practice. 61 (593): 836–838. doi:10.3399/bjgp11X613197. PMC   3223781 . PMID   22137420.
  35. ↑ "Moran E. Letter: Gambling with lives". Guardian. April 21, 2009. Retrieved April 10, 2014.
  36. ↑ Abbott, Max (June 2001). What do We Know About Gambling and Problem Gambling in New Zealand? (PDF) (Report). The New Zealand Department of Internal Affairs. p. 28. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 21, 2012. Retrieved July 26, 2012.
  37. ↑ Black, Donald; Shaw, Martha (October 2008). "Psychiatric Comorbidity Associated With Pathological Gambling". Psychiatric Times. 25 (12).
  38. ↑ Potenza, Dr. Mark, (2003), The Psychology of Gambling, Yale.edu
  39. ↑ Gobet, Fernand; Schiller, Marvin, eds. (2014). Problem gambling: Cognition, prevention and treatment. London: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN   9781137272416.
  40. ↑ Hudgens-Haney, Matthew E; Hamm, Jordan P; Goodie, Adam S; Krusemark, Elizabeth A; McDowell, Jennifer E; Clementz, Brett A (2013). "Neural Correlates of Perceived Control and Risky Decision Making in Pathological Gamblers". Biological Psychology. 92 (2): 365–372. doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2012.11.015. PMID   23201037. S2CID   41277445.
  41. ↑ Bensimon, M.; Baruch, A.; Ronel, N. (2013). "The experience of gambling in an illegal casino: The gambling spin process". European Journal of Criminology. 10 (1): 3–21. doi:10.1177/1477370812455124. S2CID   143862937.
  42. ↑ Lesieur, H. R.; Blume, S. B. (September 1, 1987). "The South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS): a new instrument for the identification of pathological gamblers". American Journal of Psychiatry. 144 (9): 1184–1188. doi:10.1176/ajp.144.9.1184. PMID   3631315.
  43. ↑ "Problem Gambling Severity Index PGSI". ProblemGambling.ca. Centre for Addiction and Mental Health. Archived from the original on February 22, 2010.
  44. ↑ "Treatment Facilities | National Council on Problem Gambling". www.ncpgambling.org. Retrieved September 15, 2016.
  45. ↑ "Cognitive–Behavioral Therapy for Pathological Gamblers" (PDF).
  46. ↑ Dowling, Nicki; Jackson, Alun C.; Thomas, Shane A. (2008). "Behavioral Interventions in the Treatment of Pathological Gambling: A Review of Activity Scheduling and Desensitization". International Journal of Behavioral Consultation and Therapy. 4 (2): 172–188. doi:10.1037/h0100841. hdl: 10536/DRO/DU:30059283 .
  47. ↑ Weatherly, Jeffrey N.; Flannery, Kathryn A. (2007). "Facing the challenge: The behavior analysis of gambling". The Behavior Analyst Today. 9 (2): 130–142. doi:10.1037/h0100652.
  48. ↑ Kim SW, Grant JE, Adson DE, Shin YC, Zaninelli R (2002). "A double-blind placebo-controlled study of the efficacy and safety of paroxetine in the treatment of pathological gambling". Journal of Clinical Psychiatry. 63 (6): 501–507. doi:10.4088/JCP.v63n0606. PMID   12088161.
  49. ↑ Hollander E, Pallanti S, Allen A, Sood E, Baldini Rossi N (2005). "Does sustained release lithium reduce impulsive gambling and affective instability versus placebo in pathological gamblers with bipolar spectrum disorders?". American Journal of Psychiatry. 162 (1): 137–145. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.162.1.137. PMID   15625212.
  50. ↑ "Best Practice in Problem Gambling Services" (PDF). Gambling Research Panel. June 1, 2003. Retrieved September 22, 2015.
  51. ↑ Gehlenborg, Josefine; Bücker, Lara; Berthold, Mira; Miegel, Franziska; Moritz, Steffen (September 21, 2020). "Feasibility, Acceptance, and Safety of Metacognitive Training for Problem and Pathological Gamblers (Gambling-MCT): A Pilot Study". Journal of Gambling Studies. 37 (2): 663–687. doi: 10.1007/s10899-020-09975-w . ISSN   1573-3602. PMC   8144133 . PMID   32955694.
  52. ↑ Harvard Medical School (2004). "The Harvard mental health letter". Factiva. 20 (9): 1.
  53. ↑ "Minimal Intervention Approach to Problem Gambling" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on March 20, 2009.
  54. ↑ Slutske, Wendy (February 2006). "Natural Recovery and Treatment-Seeking in Pathological Gambling: Results of Two U.S. National Surveys". American Journal of Psychiatry . 163 (2): 297–302. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.163.2.297. PMID   16449485.
  55. 1 2 3 Dowling, Nicki; Merkouris, Stephanie; Lubman, Dan; Thomas, Shane; Bowden-Jones, Henrietta; Cowlishaw, Sean (September 22, 2022). "Pharmacological interventions for the treatment of disordered and problem gambling". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2022 (9): CD008936. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD008936.pub2. ISSN   1469-493X. PMC   9492444 . PMID   36130734.
  56. ↑ Gainsbury, Sally M. (January 22, 2013). "Review of Self-exclusion from Gambling Venues as an Intervention for Problem Gambling". Journal of Gambling Studies. 30 (2): 229–251. doi:10.1007/s10899-013-9362-0. PMC   4016676 . PMID   23338831.
  57. 1 2 'Nobody stopped me' at the casino: Ontario self-exclusion program fails to keep gambling addicts out
  58. ↑ Casino Industry in Asia Pacific: Development, Operation, and Impact, page 153
  59. 1 2 Productivity Commission Inquiry Report, Gambling, Vol 1, 2010</
  60. ↑ Christensen, Darren R.; Dowling, Nicki A.; Jackson, Alun C.; Thomas, Shane A. (December 1, 2015). "Gambling Participation and Problem Gambling Severity in a Stratified Random Survey: Findings from the Second Social and Economic Impact Study of Gambling in Tasmania". Journal of Gambling Studies. 31 (4): 1317–1335. doi:10.1007/s10899-014-9495-9. hdl: 11343/283028 . ISSN   1573-3602. PMID   25167843. S2CID   23762935.
  61. ↑ "Problem Gaming" (PDF). European Gaming and Betting Association. Retrieved April 4, 2012.
  62. 1 2 Wardle, Heather; Sproston, Kerry; Orford, Jim; Erens, Bob; Griffiths, Mark; Constantine, Rebecca; Pigott, Sarah (September 2007). "British Gambling Prevalence Survey 2007" (PDF). National Centre for Social Research. p. 10. Archived from the original (PDF) on November 28, 2009.
  63. ↑ Pengespill og Pengespillproblem i Norge 2007 (Report). SINTEF. December 2007. p. 3.
  64. ↑ "Ludopatía, comportamiento incontrolable por los juegos de azar | México | Noticieros Televisa". September 11, 2016. Archived from the original on September 11, 2016. Retrieved October 28, 2022.
  65. ↑ "History of Problem Gambling Prevalence Rates". American Gaming Association. Archived from the original on November 16, 2012. Retrieved April 4, 2012.
  66. ↑ National Opinion Research Center (April 1, 1999). "The Prevalence and Correlates of Gambling Problems Among Adults". Gambling Impact and Behavior Study. National Gambling Impact Study Commission. p. 25.
  67. ↑ Voberg, Rachel (March 22, 2002). Gambling and Problem Gambling in Nevada (PDF) (Report). Nevada Department of Human Resources. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 18, 2012. Retrieved April 8, 2012.
  68. ↑ Shaffer, Howard; Hall, Mathew; Vander Bilt, Joni (September 1999). "Estimating the Prevalence of Disordered Gambling Behavior in the United States and Canada: A Research Synthesis". American Journal of Public Health. 89 (9): 1369–1377. doi:10.2105/AJPH.89.9.1369. PMC   1508762 . PMID   10474555.
  69. ↑ Ladouceur, Robert (June 1996). "The Prevalence of Pathological Gambling in Canada". Journal of Gambling Studies. 12 (2): 129–142. doi:10.1007/BF01539170. PMID   24233912. S2CID   32686402.
  70. ↑ Weibe, Jamie; Mun, Phil; Kauffman, Nadine (September 2006). Gambling and Problem Gambling in Ontario (Report). Responsible Gambling Council. hdl:1880/48245.
  71. ↑ Ladouceur, Robert; Jacques, Christian; Chevalier, Serge; Sévigny, Serge; Hamel, Denis (July 2005). "Prevalence of Pathological Gambling in Quebec in 2002" (PDF). The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry. 50 (8): 451–456. doi: 10.1177/070674370505000804 . PMID   16127962. S2CID   2096562.
  72. 1 2 "Don't Let Betting on the Super Bowl Take Control: The National Council on Problem Gambling Offers Help and Hope to Gambling Addicts" (PDF) (Press release). National Council on Problem Gambling (US). January 31, 2013.
  73. ↑ Ansberry, Clare (December 18, 2022). "Problem Gambling Is on the Rise Among Young Men". The Wall Street Journal . Retrieved December 19, 2022.
  74. ↑ Trimpey, Jennifer (September 25, 2023). "Self-exclusion for problem gamblers: A comprehensive overview of self-exclusion programs and efficacy in the US". Syracuse.com. Retrieved October 9, 2023.
  75. ↑ Clarín.com (May 19, 2010). "Cada vez son más los jugadores compulsivos en la Argentina". Clarín (in Spanish). Retrieved October 28, 2022.
  76. ↑ "Hotel refurbishment market continues boom phase". Hotel Management. HM – The business of Accommodation. January 11, 2012. Retrieved December 15, 2013.
  77. ↑ Martin Young, Bruce Doran & Francis Markham (December 6, 2013). "Too close to home: people who live near pokie venues at risk". The Conversation Australia. Retrieved December 15, 2013.
  78. ↑ "Statistics of Gambling Addiction 2016". North American Foundation for Gambling Addiction Help.
  79. 1 2 Productivity Commission Inquiry Report, Gambling, Vol 1, 2010, p. 203

Further reading

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.