Mycology

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Mature Mycena leaiana, a kind of Mushroom, in Mount Field National Park. Mycena leaiana var. australis.jpg
Mature Mycena leaiana, a kind of Mushroom, in Mount Field National Park.

Mycology is the branch of biology concerned with the study of fungi, including their taxonomy, genetics, biochemical properties, and use by humans. [1] Fungi can be a source of tinder, food, traditional medicine, as well as entheogens, poison, and infection. Yeasts are among the most heavily utilized members of the Kingdom Fungi, particularly in food manufacturing. [2]

Contents

Mycology branches into the field of phytopathology, the study of plant diseases. The two disciplines are closely related, because the vast majority of plant pathogens are fungi. A biologist specializing in mycology is called a mycologist.

Overview

The word mycology comes from the Ancient Greek: μύκης (mukēs), meaning "fungus" and the suffix -λογία (-logia), meaning "study." [3] Pioneer mycologists included Elias Magnus Fries, Christiaan Hendrik Persoon, Heinrich Anton de Bary, Elizabeth Eaton Morse, and Lewis David de Schweinitz. Beatrix Potter, author of The Tale of Peter Rabbit , also made significant contributions to the field. [4]

Pier Andrea Saccardo developed a system for classifying the imperfect fungi by spore color and form, which became the primary system used before classification by DNA analysis. He is most famous for his Sylloge Fungorum, [5] which was a comprehensive list of all of the names that had been used for mushrooms. Sylloge is still the only work of this kind that was both comprehensive for the botanical kingdom Fungi and reasonably modern. [6]

Many fungi produce toxins, [7] antibiotics, [8] and other secondary metabolites. For example, the cosmopolitan genus Fusarium and their toxins associated with fatal outbreaks of alimentary toxic aleukia in humans were extensively studied by Abraham Z. Joffe. [9]

Fungi are fundamental for life on earth in their roles as symbionts, e.g. in the form of mycorrhizae, insect symbionts, and lichens. Many fungi are able to break down complex organic biomolecules such as lignin, the more durable component of wood, and pollutants such as xenobiotics, petroleum, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. By decomposing these molecules, fungi play a critical role in the global carbon cycle.

Fungi and other organisms traditionally recognized as fungi, such as oomycetes and myxomycetes (slime molds), often are economically and socially important, as some cause diseases of animals (including humans) and of plants. [10]

Apart from pathogenic fungi, many fungal species are very important in controlling the plant diseases caused by different pathogens. For example, species of the filamentous fungal genus Trichoderma are considered one of the most important biological control agents as an alternative to chemical-based products for effective crop diseases management. [11]

Field meetings to find interesting species of fungi are known as 'forays', after the first such meeting organized by the Woolhope Naturalists' Field Club in 1868 and entitled "A foray among the funguses[ sic ]". [12]

Some fungi can cause disease in humans and other animals; the study of pathogenic fungi that infect animals is referred to as medical mycology. [13]

History

It is believed that humans started collecting mushrooms as food in prehistoric times. Mushrooms were first written about in the works of Euripides (480–406 BC). The Greek philosopher Theophrastos of Eresos (371–288 BC) was perhaps the first to try to systematically classify plants; mushrooms were considered to be plants missing certain organs. It was later Pliny the Elder (23–79 AD), who wrote about truffles in his encyclopedia Natural History . [14]

Fungi and truffles are neither herbs, nor roots, nor flowers, nor seeds, but merely the superfluous moisture or earth, of trees, or rotten wood, and of other rotting things. This is plain from the fact that all fungi and truffles, especially those that are used for eating, grow most commonly in thundery and wet weather.

— Jerome Bock (Hieronymus Tragus), 1552 [15]

The Middle Ages saw little advancement in the body of knowledge about fungi. However, the invention of the printing press allowed authors to dispel superstitions and misconceptions about the fungi that had been perpetuated by the classical authors. [16]

Group photograph taken at a meeting of the British Mycological Society in 1913 British Mycological Society 1913 a.jpg
Group photograph taken at a meeting of the British Mycological Society in 1913

The start of the modern age of mycology begins with Pier Antonio Micheli's 1737 publication of Nova plantarum genera. [17] Published in Florence, this seminal work laid the foundations for the systematic classification of grasses, mosses and fungi. He originated the still current genus names Polyporus [18] and Tuber, [19] both dated 1729 (though the descriptions were later amended as invalid by modern rules).

The founding nomenclaturist Carl Linnaeus included fungi in his binomial naming system in 1753, where each type of organism has a two-word name consisting of a genus and species (whereas up to then organisms were often designated with Latin phrases containing many words). [20] He originated the scientific names of numerous well-known mushroom taxa, such as Boletus [21] and Agaricus , [22] which are still in use today. During this period, fungi were still considered to belong to the plant kingdom, so they were categorized in his Species Plantarum . Linnaeus' fungal taxa were not nearly as comprehensive as his plant taxa, however, grouping together all gilled mushrooms with a stem in genus Agaricus. [23] [24] Thousands of gilled species exist, which were later divided into dozens of diverse genera; in its modern usage, Agaricus only refers to mushrooms closely related to the common shop mushroom, Agaricus bisporus . [25] For example, Linnaeus gave the name Agaricus deliciosus to the saffron milk-cap, but its current name is Lactarius deliciosus . [26] On the other hand, the field mushroom Agaricus campestris has kept the same name ever since Linnaeus's publication. [27] The English word "agaric" is still used for any gilled mushroom, which corresponds to Linnaeus's use of the word. [25]

Although mycology was historically considered a branch of botany, the 1969 discovery [28] of fungi's close evolutionary relationship to animals resulted in the study's reclassification as an independent field. [29] The term mycology and the complementary term mycologist are traditionally attributed to M.J. Berkeley in 1836. [30] However, mycologist appeared in writings by English botanist Robert Kaye Greville as early as 1823 in reference to Schweinitz. [31]

Scope and importance

Production, trade, and food manufacturing

Lumber and timber products are a key element of international trade, [32] as they are used for all things from architecture to firewood. The cultivation of forested ecosystems to produce this amount of usable wood is highly dependent on the mycorrhizal symbiotic relationships between plants, specifically trees, and fungi. The fungi provide a great number of benefits to their symbiotic plant partner, such as disease tolerance, improved growth and mineral nutrition, stress tolerance, and even fertilizer utilization. [33]

Another major component of international trade over recent years has been edible and medicinal mushrooms. While many fungal species can be cultivated in large farming installations, the cultivation of some coveted species has yet to be fully understood, which means that there are many species that can only be found naturally in the wild. [32] While the demand of wild mushroom species has increased worldwide over recent years, the rarity of these species has not changed. Even still, mushroom hunting has become a key factor in local economies. [34]

Increased scientific knowledge of fungal diversity has led to biotechnological advances in food manufacturing. [35] Humans have utilized this knowledge by cultivating various types of fungi, particularly yeasts. There are over 500 species of yeasts that have been cultivated for different purposes, the most common of which is Saccharomyces cerevisiae , also known as baker's yeast. As its common name suggests, S. cerevisiae has been used for winemaking, baking, and brewing since ancient times. [36]

Fermentation is one of the earliest forms of food preservation, with the earliest recorded use dating back over 13,000 years ago in Israel. [37] The cultivation of bacteria and fungi, particularly yeasts, have been used for centuries to increase the storage life of meats, vegetables, grains, and other foods. [38] Fermentation also plays a significant role in the production of various food products and alcoholic beverages such as beer and wine. About 90% of the world's beer production comes from lager beer and 5% from ale beer, while the rest is from spontaneous fermentation of a variety of yeasts and bacteria. [32] Production of alcoholic beverages play significant roles in the economics of many countries, with beer often being a crucial export. [32]

Plant pathogenic fungi

Plant pathogenic fungi are a serious threat when it comes to crop availability and food security. These fungi can infiltrate plants and food crops, which can cause serious economic issues for agricultural industries in numerous countries. [35] Various plant pathogens can cause cash crops to become inedible and virtually useless to the farmer that is growing them. This problem has increased over the years as the usage of monocultures have become more prevalent: a limited variety of plants in one area can lead to the rapid spread of specific pathogens. [39] Puccinia graminis is a type of stem rust that targets wheat crops worldwide from Africa to Europe. [40] [41] Another devastating fungal pathogen is Sarocladium oryzae , which is a type of sheath rot fungus prevalent in India and is a great threat to rice cultivation. [42] Historically, one of the more well-known cases of plant-fungal pandemics was the potato blight of Ireland, which was caused by a water mold known as Phytophthora infestans . This event is known as the Great Famine of Ireland. [43]

Mycology and drug discovery

For centuries, certain mushrooms have been documented as a folk medicine in China, Japan, and Russia. [44] Although the use of mushrooms in folk medicine is centered largely on the Asian continent, people in other parts of the world like the Middle East, Poland, and Belarus have been documented using mushrooms for medicinal purposes. [45]

Mushrooms produce large amounts of vitamin D when exposed to ultraviolet (UV) light. [46] Penicillin, ciclosporin, griseofulvin, cephalosporin and psilocybin are examples of drugs that have been isolated from molds or other fungi. [47]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Basidiomycota</span> Division of fungi

Basidiomycota is one of two large divisions that, together with the Ascomycota, constitute the subkingdom Dikarya within the kingdom Fungi. Members are known as basidiomycetes. More specifically, Basidiomycota includes these groups: agarics, puffballs, stinkhorns, bracket fungi, other polypores, jelly fungi, boletes, chanterelles, earth stars, smuts, bunts, rusts, mirror yeasts, and Cryptococcus, the human pathogenic yeast.

<i>Aspergillus</i> Genus of fungi

Aspergillus is a genus consisting of several hundred mold species found in various climates worldwide.

<i>Lactarius</i> Genus of fungi

Lactarius is a genus of mushroom-producing, ectomycorrhizal fungi, containing several edible species. The species of the genus, commonly known as milk-caps, are characterized by the milky fluid ("latex") they exude when cut or damaged. Like the closely related genus Russula, their flesh has a distinctive brittle consistency. It is a large genus with over 500 known species, mainly distributed in the Northern hemisphere. Recently, the genus Lactifluus has been separated from Lactarius based on molecular phylogenetic evidence.

<i>Lactarius deliciosus</i> Species of fungus

Lactarius deliciosus, commonly known as the delicious milk cap, saffron milk cap, or red pine mushroom, is one of the best known members of the large milk-cap genus Lactarius in the order Russulales. It is native to Europe, but has been accidentally introduced to other countries along with pine trees, with which the fungus is symbiotic.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Saccharomycotina</span> Subdivision of fungi

Saccharomycotina is a subdivision (subphylum) of the division (phylum) Ascomycota in the kingdom Fungi. It comprises most of the ascomycete yeasts. The members of Saccharomycotina reproduce by budding and they do not produce ascocarps.

<i>Paxillus involutus</i> Species of fungus

Paxillus involutus, also known as the brown roll-rim or the common roll-rim, is a basidiomycete fungus that is widely distributed across the Northern Hemisphere. It has been inadvertently introduced to Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, and South America, probably transported in soil with European trees. Various shades of brown in colour, the fruit body grows up to 6 cm high and has a funnel-shaped cap up to 12 cm wide with a distinctive inrolled rim and decurrent gills that may be pore-like close to the stipe. Although it has gills, it is more closely related to the pored boletes than to typical gilled mushrooms. It was first described by Pierre Bulliard in 1785, and was given its current binomial name by Elias Magnus Fries in 1838. Genetic testing suggests that Paxillus involutus may be a species complex rather than a single species.

<i>Leucocoprinus birnbaumii</i> Species of fungus

Leucocoprinus birnbaumii, commonly known as the flower pot parasol, yellow parasol, flowerpot parasol, or plantpot dapperling, is a species of gilled mushroom in the family Agaricaceae. It is common in the tropics and subtropics. However, in temperate regions, it frequently occurs in greenhouses and flowerpots, hence its common names of flowerpot parasol and plantpot dapperling. It is considered to be toxic if consumed.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pier Andrea Saccardo</span> Italian botanist and mycologist (1845–1920)

Pier Andrea Saccardo was an Italian botanist and mycologist. He was also the author of a color classification system that he called Chromotaxia. He was elected to the Linnean Society in 1916 as a foreign member. His multi-volume Sylloge Fungorum was one of the first attempts to produce a comprehensive treatise on the fungi which made use of the spore-bearing structures for classification.

<i>Agaricus campestris</i> Species of fungus

Agaricus campestris is a widely eaten gilled mushroom closely related to the cultivated A. bisporus. A. campestris is commonly known as the field mushroom or, in North America, meadow mushroom.

Pathogenic fungi are fungi that cause disease in humans or other organisms. Although fungi are eukaryotic, many pathogenic fungi are microorganisms. Approximately 300 fungi are known to be pathogenic to humans; their study is called "medical mycology". Fungal infections are estimated to kill more people than either tuberculosis or malaria—about two million people per year.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fungivore</span> Organism that consumes fungi

Fungivory or mycophagy is the process of organisms consuming fungi. Many different organisms have been recorded to gain their energy from consuming fungi, including birds, mammals, insects, plants, amoebas, gastropods, nematodes, bacteria and other fungi. Some of these, which only eat fungi, are called fungivores whereas others eat fungi as only part of their diet, being omnivores.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fungus</span> Biological kingdom, separate from plants and animals

A fungus is any member of the group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds, as well as the more familiar mushrooms. These organisms are classified as one of the traditional eukaryotic kingdoms, along with Animalia, Plantae, and either Protista or Protozoa and Chromista.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Geoffrey Clough Ainsworth</span> Mycologist, historian (1905-1998)

Geoffrey Clough Ainsworth was a British mycologist and scientific historian. He was the older brother of Ruth Ainsworth.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Flora Wambaugh Patterson</span> American mycologist

Flora Wambaugh Patterson was an American mycologist, and the first female plant pathologist hired by the United States Department of Agriculture. She ran the US National Fungus Collections for almost thirty years, adding over 90,000 fungal specimens and expanding the collection six-fold, making it the largest of its kind in the world. Patterson and her team discovered several species of disease-causing fungi that infect plants and pose a significant threat to agriculture. Although modern agricultural practices can now keep many of these threats in check, pathogenic fungi still have the ability to decimate crop yield with devastating consequences. Patterson’s work provided a basis for federal legislation to establish mechanisms to help prevent the introduction of new fungal plant diseases in the U.S.

Medicinal fungi are fungi that contain metabolites or can be induced to produce metabolites through biotechnology to develop prescription drugs. Compounds successfully developed into drugs or under research include antibiotics, anti-cancer drugs, cholesterol and ergosterol synthesis inhibitors, psychotropic drugs, immunosuppressants and fungicides.

The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to fungi and mycology:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Human interactions with fungi</span> Overview of human–fungi interactions

Human interactions with fungi include both beneficial uses, whether practical or symbolic, and harmful interactions such as when fungi damage crops, timber, food, or are pathogenic to animals.

<i>Rhizopus stolonifer</i> Species of fungus

Rhizopus stolonifer is commonly known as black bread mold. It is a member of Zygomycota and considered the most important species in the genus Rhizopus. It is one of the most common fungi in the world and has a global distribution although it is most commonly found in tropical and subtropical regions. It is a common agent of decomposition of stored foods. Like other members of the genus Rhizopus, R. stolonifer grows rapidly, mostly in indoor environments.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fungi in art</span> Direct and indirect influence of fungi in the arts

Fungi are a common theme and working material in art. Fungi appear in nearly all art forms, including literature, paintings, and graphic arts; and more recently, contemporary art, music, photography, comic books, sculptures, video games, dance, cuisine, architecture, fashion, and design. There are some exhibitions dedicated to fungi, as well as an entire museum.

<i>Cyberlindnera</i> Genus of yeasts

Cyberlindnera is a genus of yeasts in the Phaffomycetaceae family. Its name is derived from the Latin word “Ciber,” which originates from “Cibus,” meaning “food” and "sustenance". Early German mycologist Paul Lindner, honored for his contributions to descriptions of Schizosaccharomyces pombe, Saccharomycopsis (Endomyces) fibuligera and other notable species of Saccharomyces and Pichia, is the source of the "-lindnera" portion of the name. The genus has gone through many trials, reevaluations, and verifications to become the organized assortment of species it is today. Species under this genus interact with other organisms in a wide variety of ways and can be found across the globe. They are used by humans for their toxicity, fermentation abilities, and capacity to assimilate many organic compounds.

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