Agaricus

Last updated

Agaricus
Agaricus-campestris-michoacan.jpg
The type species Agaricus campestris (field or meadow mushroom)
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Basidiomycota
Class: Agaricomycetes
Order: Agaricales
Family: Agaricaceae
Genus: Agaricus
L. (1753)
Type species
Agaricus campestris
L. (1753)
Synonyms [1]
  • Amanita Dill. ex Boehm. (1760)
  • Araneosa
  • Fungus Tourn. ex Adans. (1763)
  • HypophyllumPaulet (1808)
  • LongulaZeller (1945)
  • MycesPaulet (1808)
  • Agaricus trib. PsalliotaFr. (1821)
  • Pratella(Pers.) Gray (1821)
  • Psalliota(Fr.) P.Kumm. (1871)

Agaricus is a genus of mushroom-forming fungi containing both edible and poisonous species, with over 400 members worldwide [2] [3] and possibly again as many disputed or newly-discovered species. The genus includes the common ("button") mushroom ( Agaricus bisporus ) and the field mushroom ( A. campestris ), the dominant cultivated mushrooms of the West.

Contents

Description

Members of Agaricus are characterized by having a fleshy cap or pileus, from the underside of which grow a number of radiating plates or gills, on which are produced the naked spores. They are distinguished from other members of their family, Agaricaceae, by their chocolate-brown spores. Members of Agaricus also have a stem or stipe, which elevates it above the object on which the mushroom grows, or substrate, and a partial veil, which protects the developing gills and later forms a ring or annulus on the stalk.

Taxonomy

1855 field notes with synonymy of Hypophyllum (quoted literature) with Omphalia and Agaricus (added handwritten notes) Iconographie des champignons de Paulet (Pl. LXXXIX) (6266440221).jpg
1855 field notes with synonymy of Hypophyllum (quoted literature) with Omphalia and Agaricus (added handwritten notes)

Several origins of genus name Agaricus have been proposed. It possibly originates from ancient Sarmatia Europaea, where people Agari, promontory Agarum and a river Agarus were known (all located on the northern shore of Sea of Azov, probably, near modern Berdiansk in Ukraine). [4] [5] [6]

Note also Greek ἀγαρικόν, agarikón, "a sort of tree fungus" (There has been an Agaricon Adans. genus, treated by Donk in Persoonia 1:180.)

For many years, members of the genus Agaricus were given the generic name Psalliota, and this can still be seen in older books on mushrooms. All proposals to conserve Agaricus against Psalliota or vice versa have so far been considered superfluous. [7]

Dok reports Linnaeus' name is devalidated (so the proper author citation apparently is "L. per Fr., 1821") because Agaricus was not linked to Tournefort's name. Linnaeus places both Agaricus Dill. and Amanita Dill. in synonymy, but truly a replacement for Amanita Dill., which would require A. quercinus, not A. campestris be the type. This question is compounded because Fries himself used Agaricus roughly in Linnaeus' sense (which leads to issues with Amanita), and A. campestris was eventually excluded from Agaricus by Karsten and was apparently in Lepiota at the time Donk wrote this, commenting that a type conservation might become necessary. [8]

The alternate name for the genus, Psalliota, derived from the Greek psalion/ψάλιον, "ring", was first published by Fries (1821) as trib. Psalliota. The type is Agaricus campestris (widely accepted, except by Earle, who proposed A. cretaceus). Paul Kummer (not Quélet, who merely excluded Stropharia) was the first to elevate the tribe to a genus. Psalliota was the tribe containing the type of Agaricus, so when separated, it should have caused the rest of the genus to be renamed, but this is not what happened. [9]

Phylogeny

The use of phylogenetic analysis to determine evolutionary relationships amongst Agaricus species has increased the understanding of this taxonomically difficult genus, although much work remains to be done to fully delineate infrageneric relationships. Prior to these analyses, the genus Agaricus, as circumscribed by Rolf Singer, was divided into 42 species grouped into five sections based on reactions of mushroom tissue to air or various chemical reagents, as well as subtle differences in mushroom morphology. [10] Restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis demonstrated this classification scheme needed revision. [11]

Subdivisions

As of 2018, this genus is divided into 6 subgenera and more than 20 sections: [12] [13] [14]

Brown field mushroom, Agaricus cupreobrunneus (Jul.Schaff. & Steer 1939) Pilat 1951 Cupreobrunneus.jpg
Brown field mushroom, Agaricus cupreobrunneus (Jul.Schäff. & Steer 1939) Pilát 1951

Subgenus Agaricus

This is the group around the type species of the genus, the popular edible A. campestris which is common across the Holarctic temperate zone, and has been introduced to some other regions. One of the more ancient lineages of the genus, it contains species typically found in open grassland such as A. cupreobrunneus , and it also includes at least one undescribed species. Their cap surface is whitish to pale reddish-brown and smooth to slightly fibrous, the flesh usually without characteristic smell, fairly soft, whitish, and remaining so after injury, application of KOH, or Schäffer's test (aniline and HNO3). A. annae may also belong here, as might A. porphyrocephalus , but the flesh of the latter blushes red when bruised or cut, and it has an unpleasant smell of rotten fish when old; these traits are generally associated with subgenus Pseudochitonia, in particular section Chitonioides. The A. bresadolanus/radicatus/romagnesii group which may be one or several species is sometimes placed here, but may be quite distinct and belong to subgenus Spissicaules.
Agaricus osecanus Pilat 1951 Agaricus osecanus 110729w.jpg
Agaricus osecanus Pilát 1951

Subgenus Flavoagaricus

Traditionally contained about 20 rather large species similar to the horse mushroom A. arvensis in six subgroups. Today, several additional species are recognized – in particular in the A. arvensis species complex – and placed here, such as A. aestivalis , A. augustus , A. caroli , A. chionodermus , A. deserticola (formerly Longula texensis), A. fissuratus , A. inapertus (formerly Endoptychum depressum), A. macrocarpus , A. nivescens , A. osecanus , A. silvicola and the doubtfully distinct A. essettei , A. urinascens , and the disputed taxa A. abruptibulbus , A. albertii , A. altipes , A. albolutescens , A. brunneolus , A. excellens and A. macrosporus . It also includes A. subrufescens which started to be widely grown and traded under various obsolete and newly-invented names in the early 21st century, as well as the Floridan A. blazei with which the Brazilian A. subrufescens was often confused in the past. They have versatile heterothallic life cycles, [15] are found in a variety of often rather arid habitats, and typically have a smooth white to scaly light brown cap. The flesh, when bruised, usually turns distinctly yellow to pinkish in particular on the cap, while the end of the stalk may remain white; a marked yellow stain is caused by applying KOH. Their sweetish smell of almond extract or marzipan due to benzaldehyde and derived compounds distinguishes them from the section Xanthodermatei, as does a bright dark-orange to brownish-red coloration in Schäffer's test. Many members of this subgenus are highly regarded as food, and even medically beneficial, but at least some are known to accumulate cadmium and other highly toxic chemicals from the environment, and may not always be safe to eat.
Agaricus diminutivus Peck 1873 Agaricus diminutivus 706380.jpg
Agaricus diminutivus Peck 1873
Agaricus comtulus Fr. 1836/1838 Agaricus comtulus G4.jpg
Agaricus comtulus Fr. 1836/1838

Subgenus Minores

A group of buff-white to reddish-brown species. Often delicate and slender, the typical members of this subgenus do not resemble the larger Agaricus species at a casual glance, but have the same telltale chocolate-brown gills at spore maturity. Their flesh has a barely noticeable to pronounced sweetish smell, typically almond-like, turns yellowish to brownish-red when cut or bruised at least in the lower stalk, yellow to orange with KOH, and orange to red in Schäffer's test. Species such as A. aridicola (formerly known as Gyrophragmium dunalii), A. colpeteii , A. columellatus (formerly Araneosa columellata), A. diminutivus , A. dulcidulus , A. lamelliperditus , A. luteomaculatus , A. porphyrizon , A. semotus and A. xantholepis are included here, but delimitation to and indeed distinctness from subgenus Flavoagaricus is a long-standing controversy. Unlike these however, subgenus Minores contains no choice edible species, and may even include some slightly poisonous ones; most are simply too small to make collecting them for food worthwhile, and their edibility is unknown.
Includes A. leucocarpus .
Includes A. comtulus and A. huijsmanii .
Includes A. candidolutescens and an undescribed relative.

Subgenus Minoriopsis

Somewhat reminiscent of subgenus Minores and like it closely related to subgenus Flavoagaricus, it contains species such as A. martinicensis and A. rufoaurantiacus .
Agaricus bohusii Bon 1983 Agaricus bohusii (33229461686).jpg
Agaricus bohusii Bon 1983
Agaricus subfloccosus(J.E.Lange 1926) Hlavacek/Pilat 1951 2012-07-09 Agaricus subfloccosus 235732 crop.jpg
Agaricus subfloccosus (J.E.Lange 1926) Hlaváček/Pilát 1951
Agaricus cappellianus Hlavacek 1987 Agaricus cappellianus 268349.jpg
Agaricus cappellianus Hlaváček 1987
Felt-ringed agaricus, Agaricus hondensis Murrill 1912 Agaricus hondensis Murrill 377257.jpg
Felt-ringed agaricus, Agaricus hondensis Murrill 1912
Agaricus pattersoniae Peck 1907 Agaricus pattersonae 112211.jpg
Agaricus pattersoniae Peck 1907
Agaricus trisulphuratus Berk. 1885 2014-05-22 Cystoagaricus trisulphuratus (Berk.) Singer 421894.jpg
Agaricus trisulphuratus Berk. 1885
Yellow-staining mushroom, Agaricus xanthodermus Genev. 1876 Agaricus xanthoderma eF.jpg
Yellow-staining mushroom, Agaricus xanthodermus Genev. 1876

Subgenus Pseudochitonia

This highly diverse clade of mid-sized to largish species makes up much the bulk of the genus' extant diversity, and this subgenus contains numerous as of yet undescribed species. It includes both the most prized edible as well as the most notoriously poisonous Agaricus, and some of its sections are in overall appearance more similar to the more distantly related Agaricus proper and Flavoagaricus than to their own closest relatives. Some species in this subgenus, such as A. goossensiae and A. rodmanii , are not yet robustly assigned to one of the sections.
Includes A. bohusii which resembles one of the dark-capped Flavoagaricus or Xanthodermatei but does not stain yellow with the standard (10%) KOH testing solution. It is a woodland species, edible when young, but when mature and easily distinguished from similar species it may be slightly poisonous. Other members of this section include A. crassisquamosus , A. haematinus , and A. pseudolangei .
A section notable for containing a considerable number of undescribed species in addition to A. bingensis , A. brunneopictus , A. brunneosquamulosus , A. chiangmaiensis , A. duplocingulatus , A. megacystidiatus , A. niveogranulatus , A. sordidocarpus , A. subsaharianus , and A. toluenolens .
Contains species such as A. bernardii and the doubtfully distinct A. bernardiiformis , A. gennadii , A. nevoi , A. pequinii , A. pilosporus and A. rollanii , which strongly resemble the members of section Duploannulatae and are as widely distributed. However, their flesh tends to discolor more strongly red when bruised or cut, with the discoloration slowly getting stronger. Their smell is usually also more pronounced umami-like, in some even intensely so. Some are edible and indeed considered especially well-tasting, while the unusual A. maleolens which may also belong here has an overpowering aroma which renders it inedible except perhaps in small amounts as a vegan fish sauce substitute.
Related to section Xanthodermatei as traditionally circumscribed, it includes such species as A. campestroides , A. lamellidistans , and A. variicystis .
A section proposed in 2018, it is closely related to the traditional section Xanthodermatei. The type species A. angusticystidiatus from Thailand is a smallish beige Agaricus with characteristic boat-shaped basidiospores. It has a strong unpleasant smell like members of section Xanthodermatei, but unlike these, its flesh does not change color when bruised, but turns dark reddish-brown when cut, and neither application of KOH nor Schäffer's test elicit a change in color. [14]
Traditionally often included in section Agaricus as subsection Bitorques, it seems to belong to a much younger radiation. It unites robust species, usually with a thick, almost fleshy ring, which inhabit diverse but often nutrient-rich locations. Some are well-known edibles; as they are frequently found along roads and in similar polluted places, they may not be safe to eat if collected from the wild. Their flesh is rather firm, white, with no characteristic smell, in some species turning markedly reddish when bruised or cut (though this may soon fade again), and generally changing color barely if at all after application of KOH or Schäffer's test. Based on DNA analysis of ITS1, ITS2, and 5.8S sequences, the studied species of this section could be divided into six distinct clades, four of which correspond to well-known species from the temperate Northern Hemisphere: A. bisporus , A. bitorquis (and the doubtfully distinct A. edulis ), A. cupressicola and A. vaporarius . The other two clades comprise the A. devoniensis (including A. subperonatus ) and A. subfloccosus (including A. agrinferus ) species complexes. [16] Additional members of this section not included in that study are A. cappellianus , A. cupressophilus , A. subsubensis , A. taeniatus , A. tlaxcalensis , and at least one undescribed species. [17] The cultivated mushrooms traded as A. sinodeliciosus also belong here, though their relationship to the A. devoniensis complex and A. vaporarius is unclear.
Includes A. erectosquamosus and A. pallidobrunneus ; a more distant undescribed relative of these two may also belong in this section.
Traditionally included in section Xanthodermatei sensu lato , this clade may be included therein as the most basal branch, or considered a section in its own right. It includes such species as A. biannulatus , A. freirei and its North American relatives A. grandiomyces , A. hondensis , and probably also A. phaeolepidotus . They are very similar to section Xanthodermatei sensu stricto in all aspects, except for a weaker discoloration tending towards reddish rather than chrome yellow when bruised.
Includes A. biberi , A. caballeroi , A. desjardinii , A. erthyrosarx , A. fuscovelatus , A. nigrobrunnescens , A. padanus , A. pattersoniae , and probably also A. boisselettii .
Includes A. dolichopus , A. kunmingensis , A. magnivelaris , A. variabilicolor , and at least two undescribed species.
Usually found in woodland. Brownish cap with a fibrous surface, typically felt-like but sometimes scaly. The fairly soft flesh turns pink, blood-red or orange when cut or scraped, in particular the outer layer of the stalk, but does not change color after application of KOH or Schäffer's test. Some North American species traditionally placed here, such as A. amicosus and A. brunneofibrillosus , do not seem to be closely related to the section's type species A. silvaticus (including A. haemorrhoidarius which is sometimes considered a distinct species), and represent at least a distinct subsection. Other species often placed in this section are A. benesii , A. dilutibrunneus , A. impudicus , A. koelerionensis , A. langei and A. variegans ; not all of these may actually belong here. They are generally (though not invariably) regarded as edible and tasty.
Includes the A. trisulphuratus species complex which is often placed in genus Cystoagaricus , but seems to be a true Agaricus closely related to the traditional section Xanthodermatei. Their stalk is typically bright yellow-orange, quite unlike that of other Agaricus, as is the scaly cap. A.trisulphuratus was the type species of the obsolete polyphyletic subgenus Lanagaricus, whose former species are now placed in various other sections.
As outlined by Singer in 1948, this section includes species with various characteristics similar to the type species A. xanthodermus . [18] The section forms a single clade based on analysis of ITS1+2. [19] They are either bright white all over, or have a cap densely flecked with brownish scales or tufts of fibers. The ring is usually large but thin and veil-like. Most inhabit woodland, and in general they have a more or less pronounced unpleasant smell of phenolic compounds such as hydroquinone. As food, they should all be avoided, because even though they are occasionally reported to be eaten without ill effect, the chemicals they contain give them a acrid, metallic taste, especially when cooked, and are liable to cause severe gastrointestinal upset. Their flesh at least in the lower stalk turns pale yellow to intensely reddish-ochre when bruised or cut; more characteristic however is the a bright yellow reaction with KOH while Schäffer's test is negative. Apart from A. xanthodermus, the core group of this section contains species such as A. atrodiscus , A. californicus , A. endoxanthus and the doubtfully distinct A. rotalis , A. fuscopunctatus , A. iodosmus , A. laskibarii , A. microvolvatulus , A. menieri , A. moelleri , A. murinocephalus , A. parvitigrinus , A. placomyces , A. pocillator , A. pseudopratensis , A. tibetensis , A. tollocanensis , A. tytthocarpus , A. xanthodermulus , A. xanthosarcus , as well as at least 4 undescribed species, and possibly A. cervinifolius and the doubtfully distinct A. infidus . Whether such species as A. bisporiticus , A. nigrogracilis and A. pilatianus are more closely related to the mostly Eurasian core group, or to the more basal lineage here separated as section Hondenses, requires clarification.
Agaricus lanipes(F.H.Moller & Jul.Schaff. 1938) Hlavacek 1949 ex Pilat/Singer 1951 Agaricus lanipes 20121012w.JPG
Agaricus lanipes (F.H.Møller & Jul.Schäff. 1938) Hlaváček 1949 ex Pilát/Singer 1951

Subgenus Spissicaules

The flesh of members of this subgenus tends to turn more or less pronouncedly yellowish in the lower stalk, where the skin is often rough and scaly, and reddish in the cap. They typically resemble the darker members of subgenus Flavoagaricus, with a sweet smell and mild taste; like that subgenus, Spissicaules belongs to the smaller of the two main groups of the genus, but they form entirely different branch therein. While some species are held to be edible, others are considered unappetizing or even slightly poisonous. Also includes A. lanipes and A. maskae , which probably belong to section Rarolentes or Spissicaules, and possibly also A. bresadolanus and its doubtfully distinct relatives A. radicatus/romagnesii .
Includes A. amoenus and A. gratolens .
Includes A. albosquamosus and A. leucolepidotus .
Includes species such as A. leucotrichus/litoralis (of which A. spissicaulis is a synonym, but see also Geml et al. 2004 [13] ) and A. litoraloides . Most significantly, some species have a persistent and unpleasant rotting-wood smell entirely unlike the sweet aroma of Flavoagaricus, and while not known to be poisonous, are certainly unpalatable.
Includes A. brunneopilatus , A. linzhinensis and A. subrutilescens . Somewhat similar to section Sanguinolenti or the dark-capped species of section Xanthodermatei, but the flesh does not show a pronounced red or yellow color change when cut or bruised. Edibility is disputed.

Selected species

The fungal genus Agaricus as late as 2008 was believed to contain about 200 species worldwide [20] but since then, molecular phylogenetic studies have revalidated several disputed species, as well as resolved some species complexes, and aided in discovery and description of a wide range of mostly tropical species that were formerly unknown to science. As of 2020, the genus is believed to contain no fewer than 400 species, and possibly many more.

The medicinal mushroom known in Japan as Echigoshirayukidake (越後白雪茸) was initially also thought to be an Agaricus, either a subspecies of Agaricus "blazei" [21] (i.e. A. subrufescens ), or a new species. [22] It was eventually identified as sclerotium of the crust-forming bark fungus Ceraceomyces tessulatus, which is not particularly closely related to Agaricus.

Several secotioid (puffball-like) fungi have in recent times be recognized as highly aberrant members of 'Agaricus, and are now included here. These typically inhabit deserts where few fungi – and even fewer of the familiar cap-and-stalk mushroom shape – grow. Another desert species, A. zelleri, was erroneously placed in the present genus and is now known as Gyrophragmium californicum]]. In addition, the scientific names Agaricus and – even more so –Psalliota were historically often used as a "wastebasket taxon" for any and all similar mushrooms, regardless of their actual relationships.

Species either confirmed or suspected to belong into this genus include:

Agaricus alligator Murrill 1945 Agaricus alligator Murrill 323415.jpg
Agaricus alligator Murrill 1945
Agaricus andrewii A.E.Freeman 1979 Agaricus andrewii A.E. Freeman 787400.jpg
Agaricus andrewii A.E.Freeman 1979
Agaricus approximans Peck 1909 Agaricus approximans group 532226.jpg
Agaricus approximans Peck 1909
Agaricus austrovinaceus Grgur. & T.W.May 1997 Agaricus austrovinaceus Grgur. & T.W. May 1066972.jpg
Agaricus austrovinaceus Grgur. & T.W.May 1997
Agaricus buckmacadooi Kerrigan 2016 Agaricus buckmacadooi Kerrigan 815143.jpg
Agaricus buckmacadooi Kerrigan 2016
Agaricus crocodilinus Murrill 1912 Agaricus crocodilinus Murrill 419143.jpg
Agaricus crocodilinus Murrill 1912
Agaricus crocopeplusBerk. & Broome 1871 Agaricus crocopeplus Berkeley & Broom 606553.jpg
Agaricus crocopeplus Berk. & Broome 1871
Agaricus devoniensis P.D.Orton 1960 Agaricus devoniensis Jymm 02.jpg
Agaricus devoniensis P.D.Orton 1960
Agaricus endoxanthus'Berk. & Broome 1871 Agaricus endoxanthus Berk. & Broome 344641.jpg
Agaricus endoxanthus'Berk. & Broome 1871
Agaricus incultorum Kerrigan 2016 Agaricus incultorum Kerrigan 705261.jpg
Agaricus incultorum Kerrigan 2016
Agaricus merrilli Copel. 1905 2013-10-01 Agaricus merrilli 372340.jpg
Agaricus merrilli Copel. 1905
Agaricus moronii Kerrigan 2016 Agaricus moronii Kerrigan 882133.jpg
Agaricus moronii Kerrigan 2016
Agaricus nanaugustus Kerrigan 2016 Agaricus nanaugustus Kerrigan 683481.jpg
Agaricus nanaugustus Kerrigan 2016
Agaricus porphyrizon P.D.Orton 1960 AgaricusPorphyrizon2.jpg
Agaricus porphyrizon P.D.Orton 1960
Agaricus rhoadsii Murrill 1939 2017-08-08 Agaricus rhoadsii Murrill 768907.jpg
Agaricus rhoadsii Murrill 1939
Agaricus subperonatus (J.E.Lange 1926) Singer 1949 Gruga-0055.jpg
Agaricus subperonatus (J.E.Lange 1926) Singer 1949
Agaricus vaporarius (Pers. 1801) J.Otto 1816 Agaricus vaporarius 01.JPG
Agaricus vaporarius (Pers. 1801) J.Otto 1816
Agaricus vinosobrunneofumidusKerrigan 2016 Agaricus vinosobrunneofumidus Kerrigan 802394.jpg
Agaricus vinosobrunneofumidus Kerrigan 2016

Toxicity

The white form of the death cap Amanita is often mistaken for edible Agaricus, with fatal results Amanita fhaloides. var. blanca - panoramio.jpg
The white form of the death cap Amanita is often mistaken for edible Agaricus, with fatal results

A notable group of poisonous Agaricus is the clade around the yellow-staining mushroom, A. xanthodermus . [50]

One species reported from Africa, A. aurantioviolaceus , is reportedly deadly poisonous. [51]

Far more dangerous is the fact that Agaricus, when still young and most valuable for eating, are easily confused with several deadly species of Amanita (in particular the species collectively called "destroying angels", as well as the white form of the appropriately-named "death cap" Amanita phalloides ), as well as some other highly poisonous fungi. An easy way to recognize Amanita is the gills, which remain whitish at all times in that genus. In Agaricus, by contrast, the gills are only initially white, turning dull pink as they mature, and eventually the typical chocolate-brown as the spores are released.

Even so, Agaricus should generally be avoided by inexperienced collectors, since other harmful species are not as easily recognized, and clearly recognizable mature Agaricus are often too soft and maggot-infested for eating. When collecting Agaricus for food, it is important to identify every individual specimen with certainty, since one Amanita fungus of the most poisonous species is sufficient to kill an adult human – even the shed spores of a discarded specimen are suspected to cause life-threatening poisoning. Confusing poisonous Amanita with an edible Agaricus is the most frequent cause of fatal mushroom poisonings world-wide.

Reacting to some distributors marketing dried agaricus or agaricus extract to cancer patients, it has been identified by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration as a "fake cancer 'cure'". [52] The species most often sold as such quack cures is A. subrufescens, which is often referred to by the erroneous name "Agaricus Blazei" and advertised by fanciful trade names such as "God's mushroom" or "mushroom of life", but can cause allergic reactions and even liver damage if consumed in excessive amounts. [53]

Uses

The genus contains the most widely consumed and best-known mushroom today, A. bisporus , with A. arvensis , A. campestris and A. subrufescens also being well-known and highly regarded. A. porphyrocephalus is a choice edible when young, [44] and many others are edible as well, namely members of sections Agaricus, Arvense, Duploannulatae and Sanguinolenti. [12] [54]

Related Research Articles

<i>Amanita</i> Genus of mushrooms including some very deadly species

The genus Amanita contains about 600 species of agarics, including some of the most toxic known mushrooms found worldwide, as well as some well-regarded edible species. The genus is responsible for approximately 95% of fatalities resulting from mushroom poisoning, with the death cap accounting for about 50% on its own. The most potent toxin present in these mushrooms is α-Amanitin.

<i>Agaricus bisporus</i> Species of fungus

Agaricus bisporus, commonly known as the cultivated mushroom, is a basidiomycete mushroom native to grasslands in Eurasia and North America. It is cultivated in more than 70 countries and is one of the most commonly and widely consumed mushrooms in the world. It has two color states while immature – white and brown – both of which have various names, with additional names for the mature state, such as chestnut, portobello, portabellini, button and champignon de Paris.

<i>Agaricus subrufescens</i> Species of fungus

Agaricus subrufescens is a species of mushroom, commonly known as almond mushroom, almond agaricus, mushroom of the sun, God's mushroom, mushroom of life, royal sun agaricus, jisongrong, or himematsutake. A. subrufescens is edible, with a somewhat sweet taste and a fragrance of almonds.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Blusher</span> Species of fungus

The blusher is the common name for several closely related species of the genus Amanita. A. rubescens, or the blushing amanita, is found in Europe and eastern North America, and A. novinupta, also known as the new bride blushing amanita, is found in western North America. Both their scientific and common names are derived from the propensity of their flesh to turn pink upon bruising or cutting.

<i>Tricholoma argyraceum</i> Species of fungus

Tricholoma argyraceum is a grey-capped mushroom of the large genus Tricholoma. It has been often confused with the similar-looking Tricholoma scalpturatum.

<i>Agaricus campestris</i> Species of fungus

Agaricus campestris is a widely eaten gilled mushroom closely related to the cultivated A. bisporus. A. campestris is commonly known as the field mushroom or, in North America, meadow mushroom.

<i>Amanita ocreata</i> Species of poisonous fungus in the genus Amanita

Amanita ocreata, commonly known as the death angel, destroying angel, angel of death or more precisely western North American destroying angel, is a deadly poisonous basidiomycete fungus, one of many in the genus Amanita. The large fruiting bodies generally appear in spring; the cap may be white or ochre and often develops a brownish centre, while the stipe, ring, gill and volva are all white. A. ocreata resembles several edible species commonly consumed by humans, increasing the risk of accidental poisoning. Mature fruiting bodies can be confused with the edible A. velosa, A. lanei or Volvopluteus gloiocephalus, while immature specimens may be difficult to distinguish from edible Agaricus mushrooms or puffballs.

<i>Amanita brunnescens</i> Species of fungus

Amanita brunnescens, also known as the brown American star-footed amanita or cleft-footed amanita is a native North American mushroom of the large genus Amanita. It differs from A. phalloides by its fragile volva and tendency to bruise brown.

<i>Agaricus augustus</i> Species of fungus

Agaricus augustus, known commonly as the prince, is a basidiomycete fungus of the genus Agaricus.

Chemical tests in mushroom identification are methods that aid in determining the variety of some fungi. The most useful tests are Melzer's reagent and potassium hydroxide.

<i>Agaricus bernardii</i> Agaric fungus in the family Agaricaceae

Agaricus bernardii, commonly called the salt-loving agaricus, or salty mushroom, is an agaric fungus in the family Agaricaceae. The mushroom's thick stem is usually shorter than the diameter of the cap, which ranges from 5–15 centimetres and is convex to flattened. The cap surface is whitish to buff, and can develop scales or warts in age. The gills are initially pink before turning brown when the spores mature. The flesh turns reddish when it is cut or bruised. It resembles species such as A. bitorquis.

<i>Agaricus abruptibulbus</i> Species of fungus

Agaricus abruptibulbus is a species of mushroom in the genus Agaricus. It is commonly known as the abruptly-bulbous agaricus or the flat-bulb mushroom. First described by the mycologist Charles Horton Peck, this bulbous-stemmed edible species smells slightly of anise or bitter almond, and turns yellow when bruised or cut. The mushroom is medium-sized, with a white, yellow-staining cap on a slender stipe that has a wide, flat bulb on the base.

<i>Agaricus semotus</i> Species of fungus

Agaricus semotus is a woodland mushroom of the fungus order Agaricales. Like many of its relatives, it can be found spread throughout wooded, moist areas in the southern United States, and has been found in areas ranging from California to Florida. It is also indigenous to Great Britain and Europe. A. semotus has also been collected in New Zealand. Although various authors disagree about its edibility, its modest size prevents it from being a significant source of nutrition.

<i>Agaricus lilaceps</i> Species of mushroom

Agaricus lilaceps, also known as the cypress agaricus or the giant cypress agaricus is a species of mushroom. It is among the largest and most choice edible Agaricus species in California. Aside from size, Agaricus lilaceps is characterized by a robust stature, as the stipe often club-shaped.

<i>Agaricus placomyces</i> Species of fungus

Agaricus placomyces is a toxic basidiomycete fungus of the genus Agaricus. It is found in North America; the Eurasian populations formerly known by the same scientific name are nowadays known as A. moelleri, while the present species may also be referred to as A. praeclaresquamosus.

<i>Amanita ravenelii</i> Species of fungus

Amanita ravenelii, commonly known as the pinecone lepidella, is a species of fungus in the family Amanitaceae. The whitish fruit bodies are medium to large, with caps up to 17 centimetres wide, and stems up to 25 cm (10 in) long. The cap surface has large warts and the stem has a scaly, bulbous base. The mushrooms have a unique chlorine like odor.

<i>Agaricus hondensis</i> Species of fungus in the family Agaricaceae

Agaricus hondensis, commonly known as the felt-ringed agaricus, is a species of fungus in the family Agaricaceae. The species was officially described in 1912 by mycologist William Alphonso Murrill, along with three other Agaricus species that have since been placed in synonymy with A. hondensis. Found in the Pacific Northwest region of North America, A. hondensis fruits in the fall under conifers or in mixed forests.

<i>Inocybe godeyi</i> Species of fungus

Inocybe godeyi is a species of Inocybaceae fungus found in Europe. The species produces mushrooms with cone-shaped caps up to 5 cm (2 in) in diameter. The caps are cream, becoming browner, but they bruise red. The stem is up to 6 cm (2 in) long, and has a "bulb" at the base. The white flesh has a strong smell and an acrid taste. The mushrooms can be found on forest floors in autumn months; the species forms an ectomycorrhizal relationship to surrounding trees, favouring beech. I. godeyi is known to be poisonous, containing muscarine compounds, and consumption of the mushrooms can lead to SLUDGE syndrome. The species is sometimes mistaken for the deadly I. erubescens.

<i>Agaricus brunneofibrillosus</i> Species of fungus

Agaricus brunneofibrillosus, commonly known as the dusky mushroom or bleeding agaricus, is a mushroom in the family Agaricaceae. It has a medium to dark brown cap up to 6 cm (2.4 in) in diameter with brownish fibrillose scales that darken in age. The tightly-packed gills are initially cream colored before becoming pinkish, lilac-gray, and finally brownish as the spores mature. The stout stem is enlarged to bulbous at the base which has one or more brown bands, and a white, membranous ring. The mushroom is edible, and has a pleasant odor similar to button mushrooms, and tastes similar to Agaricus bisporus when cooked.

<i>Amanita ananiceps</i> Species of fungus

Amanita ananiceps is a species of agaric fungus in the family Amanitaceae native to Australia.

References

  1. ↑ "Synonymy: Agaricus L., Sp. pl. 2: 1171 (1753)". Index Fungorum. CAB International. Retrieved 2013-08-29.
  2. ↑ Bas C. (1991). A short introduction to the ecology, taxonomy and nomenclature of the genus Agaricus, 21–24. In L.J.L.D. Van Griensven (ed.), Genetics and breeding of Agaricus. Pudoc, Wageningen, The Netherlands.
  3. ↑ Capelli A. (1984). Agaricus. L.: Fr. (Psalliota Fr.). Liberia editrice Bella Giovanna, Saronno, Italy
  4. ↑ Rolfe R. T.; Rolfe F. W. (1874). "The derivation of fungus names". The Romance of the Fungus World. Courier Corporation. pp. 292–293. ISBN   9780486231051.
  5. ↑ R. Talbert, ed. (2000). "Map 84. Maeotis". Barrington Atlas of the Greek and Roman World. Princeton University Press.
  6. ↑ W. Smith, ed. (1854). "Agari". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography. Vol. I. Boston: Little, Brown, and Company. p. 72. (on Google Books, on archive.org)
  7. ↑ Wakesfield E. (1940). "Nomina genérica conservando. Contributions from the Nomenclature Committee of the British Mycological Society, III". Transactions of the British Mycological Society. 24 (3–4): 282–293. doi:10.1016/s0007-1536(40)80028-4.
  8. ↑ Donk, M.A. (1962). "The generic names proposed for Agaricaceae". Beihefte zur Nova Hedwigia. 5: 1–320. ISSN   0078-2238.
  9. ↑ Donk, M.A. (1962). "The generic names proposed for Agaricaceae". Beihefte zur Nova Hedwigia 5: 1–320. ISSN 0078-2238
  10. ↑ Singer, Rolf (1987). Agaricales in Modern Taxonomy. Lubrecht & Cramer Ltd. ISBN   978-3-7682-0143-8.
  11. ↑ Bunyard BA, Nicholson MS, Royse DJ (December 1996). "Phylogeny of the genus Agaricus inferred from restriction analysis of enzymatically amplified ribosomal DNA". Fungal Genet Biol. 20 (4): 243–53. doi:10.1006/fgbi.1996.0039. PMID   9045755.
  12. 1 2 Bon, Marcel (1987) The Mushrooms and Toadstools of Britain and North Western Europe. Hodder and Stoughton, ISBN   0 340 39935 X (paperback) ISBN   0 340 39953 8 (hardback)
  13. 1 2 3 Geml J, Geiser DM, Royse DJ (2004). "Molecular evolution of Agaricus species based on ITS and LSU rDNA sequences". Mycological Progress. 3 (2): 157–76. Bibcode:2004MycPr...3..157G. doi:10.1007/s11557-006-0086-8. S2CID   40265528.
  14. 1 2 He, Mao-Qiang; Chuankid, Boontiya; Hyde, Kevin D.; Cheewangkoon, Ratchadawan; Zhao, Rui-Lin (2018). "A new section and species of Agaricus subgenus Pseudochitonia from Thailand". MycoKeys (40): 53–67. doi: 10.3897/mycokeys.40.26918 . PMC   6160818 . PMID   30271264.
  15. ↑ Calvo-Bado L, Noble R, Challen M, Dobrovin-Pennington A, Elliott T (February 2000). "Sexuality and Genetic Identity in the Agaricus Section Arvenses". Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 66 (2): 728–34. Bibcode:2000ApEnM..66..728C. doi:10.1128/AEM.66.2.728-734.2000. PMC   91888 . PMID   10653743.
  16. ↑ Challen MP, Kerrigan RW, Callac P (2003). "A phylogenetic reconstruction and emendation of Agaricus section Duploannulatae". Mycologia. 95 (1): 61–73. doi:10.2307/3761962. JSTOR   3761962. PMID   21156589.
  17. 1 2 3 4 Kerrigan RW, Callac P, Parra LA (2008). "New and rare taxa in Agaricus section Bivelares (Duploannulati)". Mycologia. 100 (6): 876–92. doi:10.3852/08-019. PMID   19202842. S2CID   25519596.
  18. ↑ Singer R (1948). "Diagnoses Fungorum Novorum Agaricalium". Sydowia. 2: 26–42.
  19. ↑ Kerrigan RW, Callac P, Guinberteau J, Challen MP, Parra LA (2005). "Agaricus section Xanthodermatei: a phylogenetic reconstruction with commentary on taxa". Mycologia. 97 (6): 1292–315. doi:10.3852/mycologia.97.6.1292. PMID   16722221.
  20. ↑ Kirk PM, Cannon PF, Minter DW, Stalpers JA (2008). Dictionary of the Fungi (10th ed.). Wallingford, UK: CAB International. p. 13. ISBN   978-0-85199-826-8.
  21. ↑ US 6120772A,Hitoshi Ito&Toshimitsu Sumiya,"Oral drugs for treating AIDS patients",issued 2000-09-19
  22. ↑ Watanabe, T; Nakajima, Y; Konishi, T (2008). "In vitro and in vivo anti-oxidant activity of hot water extract of basidiomycetes-X, newly identified edible fungus" (PDF). Biological & Pharmaceutical Bulletin. 31 (1): 111–7. doi: 10.1248/bpb.31.111 . PMID   18175952 . Retrieved 3 April 2018.
  23. 1 2 Phillips 2010, p. 219.
  24. ↑ (1899). Spegazzini C. (1899). Fungi argentini novi vel critici. Anales Mus. Nac. Buenos Aires24: 167–186.
  25. ↑ Parra LA, Mua A, Cappelli A, Callac P (2012). "Agaricus biannulatus sp. nov., una nuova specie della sezione Xanthodermatei raccolta in Sardegna e Sicilia". Micologia e Vegetazione Mediterranea (in Italian). 26 (1): 3–30.
  26. 1 2 Thongklang N, Nawaz R, Khalid AN, Chen J, Hyde KD, Zhao R, Parra LA, Hanif M, Moinard M, Callac P (2014). "Morphological and molecular characterization of three Agaricus species from tropical Asia (Pakistan, Thailand) reveals a new group in section Xanthodermatei". Mycologia. 106 (6): 1220–32. doi:10.3852/14-076. PMID   25152000. S2CID   2119.
  27. ↑ Parra LA (2005). "Nomenclatural study of the genus Agaricus L. (Agaricales, Basidiomycotina) of the Iberian Peninsula and Balearic Islands". Cuadernos de Trabajo Flora Micológica Ibérica. 21: 3–101.
  28. ↑ Parra LA, Muñoz G, Callac P (2014). "Agaricus caballeroi sp. nov., una nueva especie de la sección Nigrobrunnescentes recolectada en España". Micologia e Vegetazione Mediterranea (in Spanish). 29 (1): 21–38.
  29. 1 2 Geml J, Laursen GA, Nusbaum HC, Taylor DL (2007). "Two new species of Agaricus from the subantarctic". Mycotaxon. 100: 193–208.
  30. 1 2 3 4 5 Lebel T, Syme A (2011). "Sequestrate species of Agaricus and Macrolepiota from Australia: new species and combinations, and their position in a calibrated phylogeny". Mycologia. 104 (2): 496–520. doi:10.3852/11-092. PMID   22067305. S2CID   26266778.
  31. ↑ Pilát A. (1951). The Bohemian species of the genus Agaricus. Prague, 142 pp.
  32. 1 2 Lebel T. (2013). "Two new species of sequestrate Agaricus (section Minores) from Australia". Mycological Progress. 12 (4): 699–707. Bibcode:2013MycPr..12..699L. doi:10.1007/s11557-012-0879-x. S2CID   18497645.
  33. ↑ Murrill WA (1922). "Dark-spored agarics: III. Agaricus". Mycologia. 14 (4): 200–221. doi:10.2307/3753642. JSTOR   3753642.
  34. ↑ Parra LA, Villarreal M, Esteve-Raventos F (2002). "Agaricus endoxanthus una specie tropicale trovata in Spagna". Rivista di Micologia. 45 (3): 225–233.
  35. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Kerrigan R (1985). "Studies in Agaricus III: New Species from California". Mycotaxon. 22: 419–434.
  36. ↑ Parra LA, Arrillaga P (2002). "Agaricus laskibarii. A new species from French coastal sand-dunes of Seignosse". Doc Mycol. 31 (124): 33–38.
  37. ↑ Phillips 2010, p. 223.
  38. ↑ Remy L (1964). "Contribution a l'etude de la Flore mycologique Briangonnaise (Basidiomycetes et Discomycetes)". Bull. Trimestriel Soc. Mycol. France. 80: 459–585.
  39. ↑ Nauta MM (1999). "The Mycoflora of the Falkland Islands: II. Notes on the genus Agaricus". Kew Bulletin. 54 (3): 621–635. Bibcode:1999KewBu..54..621N. doi:10.2307/4110859. JSTOR   4110859.
  40. ↑ Phillips 2010, p. 224.
  41. 1 2 Tarafder, Entaj; Dutta, Arun Kumar; Acharya, Krishnendu (2022-03-29). "New species and new record in Agaricus subg. Minores from India". Turkish Journal of Botany. 46 (2): 183–195. doi: 10.55730/1300-008X.2681 . ISSN   1300-008X. S2CID   248936875.
  42. ↑ Zhao R-L, Desjardin DE, Callac P, Parra LA, Guinberteau J, Soytong K, Karunarathna S, Zhang Y, Hyde KD (2012). "Two species of Agaricus sect. Xanthodermatei from Thailand". Mycotaxon. 122: 122–95. doi: 10.5248/122.187 .
  43. 1 2 Callac P, Guinberteau J (2005). "Morphological and molecular characterization of two novel species of Agaricus section Xanthodermatei". Mycologia. 97 (2): 416–24. doi:10.3852/mycologia.97.2.416. PMID   16396349.
  44. 1 2 Phillips 2010, p. 220.
  45. ↑ Raithelhuber J (1986). "Nomina nova". Metrodiana. 14: 22.
  46. ↑ Murrill, William (1922). "Dark-Spored Agarics". Mycologia . 14. New York Botanical Garden: 203.
  47. ↑ Singer R, Moser M (1965). "Forest mycology and forest communities in South America". Mycopathol. Mycol. Appl. 26 (2–3): 129–191. doi:10.1007/BF02049773. S2CID   45170297.
  48. ↑ Heinemann P (1986). "Agarici Austroamericani VI. Aperçu sur les Agaricus de Patagonie et de la Terre de Feu". Bull. Jard. Bot. Belg. 56 (3/4): 417–446. doi:10.2307/3668202. JSTOR   3668202.
  49. ↑ Gerault A. (2005). Florule evolutive des basidiomycotina du Finistere – Homobasidiomycetes – Agaricales: 22.
  50. ↑ Buczacki, Stefan; Shields, Chris; Ovenden, Denys (2012). Collins Fungi Guide: The most complete field guide to the mushrooms and toadstools of Britain & Ireland. HarperCollins UK. p. 49. ISBN   9780007242900.
  51. ↑ Walleyn R; Rammeloo J. (1994). The Poisonous and Useful Fungi of Africa South of the Sahara. Scripta Botanica Belgica. Vol. 10. National Botanic Garden of Belgium. p. 10. ISBN   978-90-72619-22-8.
  52. ↑ "187 Fake Cancer 'Cures' Consumers Should Avoid". U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Archived from the original on May 2, 2017. Retrieved May 20, 2020.
  53. ↑ "Agaricus". Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center. 2018. Retrieved 21 November 2018.
  54. ↑ Phillips 2010, pp. 219, 223.

Sources

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.