In biology, taxonomic rank is the relative level of a group of organisms (a taxon ) in an ancestral or hereditary hierarchy. A common system of biological classification ( taxonomy ) consists of species, genus, family, order, class, phylum, kingdom, and domain. While older approaches to taxonomic classification were phenomenological, forming groups on the basis of similarities in appearance, organic structure and behavior, methods based on genetic analysis have opened the road to cladistics, a method of classification of animals and plants according to the proportion of measurable or like characteristics that they have in common. It is assumed that the higher the proportion of characteristics that two organisms share, the more recently they both came from a common ancestor.
A given rank subsumes less general categories under it, that is, more specific descriptions of life forms. Above it, each rank is classified within more general categories of organisms and groups of organisms related to each other through inheritance of traits or features from common ancestors. The rank of any species and the description of its genus is basic; which means that to identify a particular organism, it is usually not necessary to specify ranks other than these first two. [1]
Consider a particular species, the red fox, Vulpes vulpes: the specific name or specific epithet vulpes (small v) identifies a particular species in the genus Vulpes (capital V) which comprises all the "true" foxes. Their close relatives are all in the family Canidae, which includes dogs, wolves, jackals, and all foxes; the next higher major rank, the order Carnivora, includes caniforms (bears, seals, weasels, skunks, raccoons and all those mentioned above), and feliforms (cats, civets, hyenas, mongooses). Carnivorans are one group of the hairy, warm-blooded, nursing members of the class Mammalia, which are classified among animals with notochords in the phylum Chordata, and with them among all animals in the kingdom Animalia. Finally, at the highest rank all of these are grouped together with all other organisms possessing cell nuclei in the domain Eukarya.
The International Code of Zoological Nomenclature defines rank as: "The level, for nomenclatural purposes, of a taxon in a taxonomic hierarchy (e.g. all families are for nomenclatural purposes at the same rank, which lies between superfamily and subfamily)." [2]
In his landmark publications, such as the Systema Naturae , Carl Linnaeus used a ranking scale limited to kingdom, class, order, genus, species, and one rank below species. Today, the nomenclature is regulated by the nomenclature codes. There are seven main taxonomic ranks: kingdom, phylum or division, class, order, family, genus, and species. In addition, domain (proposed by Carl Woese) is now widely used as a fundamental rank, although it is not mentioned in any of the nomenclature codes, and is a synonym for dominion (Latin : dominium), introduced by Moore in 1974. [3] [4]
Latin | English |
---|---|
regio | domain |
regnum | kingdom |
phylum | phylum (in zoology) / division (in botany) |
classis | class |
ordo | order |
familia | family |
genus | genus |
species | species |
A taxon is usually assigned a rank when it is given its formal name. The basic ranks are species and genus. When an organism is given a species name it is assigned to a genus, and the genus name is part of the species name.
The species name is also called a binomial, that is, a two-term name. For example, the zoological name for the human species is Homo sapiens. This is usually italicized in print or underlined when italics are not available. In this case, Homo is the generic name and it is capitalized; sapiens indicates the species and it is not capitalized. While not always used, some species include a specific epithet. For instance, modern humans are Homo sapiens sapiens, or H. sapiens sapiens.
There are definitions of the following taxonomic ranks in the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature: superfamily, family, subfamily, tribe, subtribe, genus, subgenus, species, subspecies. [5]
The International Code of Zoological Nomenclature divides names into "family-group names", "genus-group names" and "species-group names". The Code explicitly mentions the following ranks for these categories: [5] : §29–31
The rules in the Code apply to the ranks of superfamily to subspecies, and only to some extent to those above the rank of superfamily. Among "genus-group names" and "species-group names" no further ranks are officially allowed. Zoologists sometimes use additional terms such as species group, species subgroup, species complex and superspecies for convenience as extra, but unofficial, ranks between the subgenus and species levels in taxa with many species, e.g. the genus Drosophila . (Note the potentially confusing use of "species group" as both a category of ranks as well as an unofficial rank itself.[ citation needed ])
At higher ranks (family and above) a lower level may be denoted by adding the prefix "infra", meaning lower, to the rank. For example, infraorder (below suborder) or infrafamily (below subfamily).
Botanical ranks categorize organisms based on their relationships. They start with Kingdom, then move to Division (or Phylum), [6] Class, Order, Family, Genus, and Species. Each rank reflects shared characteristics and evolutionary history. Understanding these ranks aids in taxonomy and studying biodiversity.
Rank | Type | Suffix |
---|---|---|
kingdom (regnum) | primary | — |
subregnum | further | — |
division (divisio) phylum (phylum) | primary | ‑phyta -mycota (fungi) |
subdivisio or subphylum | further | ‑phytina -mycotina (fungi) |
class (classis) | primary | ‑opsida (plant) ‑phyceae (algae) -mycetes (fungi) |
subclassis | further | ‑idae (plant) ‑phycidae (algae) -mycetidae (fungi) |
order (ordo) | primary | -ales |
subordo | further | -ineae |
family (familia) | primary | -aceae |
subfamilia | further | ‑oideae |
tribe (tribus) | secondary | -eae |
subtribus | further | ‑inae |
genus (genus) | primary | — |
subgenus | further | — |
section (sectio) | secondary | — |
subsectio | further | — |
series (series) | secondary | — |
subseries | further | — |
species (species) | primary | — |
subspecies | further | — |
variety (varietas) | secondary | — |
subvarietas | further | — |
form (forma) | secondary | — |
subforma | further | — |
There are definitions of the following taxonomic categories in the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants: cultivar group, cultivar, grex.
The rules in the ICN apply primarily to the ranks of family and below, and only to some extent to those above the rank of family.
Taxa at the rank of genus and above have a botanical name in one part (unitary name); those at the rank of species and above (but below genus) have a botanical name in two parts (binary name); all taxa below the rank of species have a botanical name in three parts (an infraspecific name). To indicate the rank of the infraspecific name, a "connecting term" is needed. Thus Poa secunda subsp. juncifolia, where "subsp". is an abbreviation for "subspecies", is the name of a subspecies of Poa secunda . [8]
Hybrids can be specified either by a "hybrid formula" that specifies the parentage, or may be given a name. For hybrids receiving a hybrid name, the same ranks apply, prefixed with notho (Greek: 'bastard'), with nothogenus as the highest permitted rank. [9]
If a different term for the rank was used in an old publication, but the intention is clear, botanical nomenclature specifies certain substitutions:[ citation needed ]
Classifications of five species follow: the fruit fly familiar in genetics laboratories (Drosophila melanogaster), humans (Homo sapiens), the peas used by Gregor Mendel in his discovery of genetics (Pisum sativum), the "fly agaric" mushroom Amanita muscaria , and the bacterium Escherichia coli . The eight major ranks are given in bold; a selection of minor ranks are given as well.
Rank | Fruit fly | Human | Pea | Fly agaric | E. coli |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Domain | Eukarya | Eukarya | Eukarya | Eukarya | Bacteria |
Kingdom | Animalia | Animalia | Plantae | Fungi | Pseudomonadati [11] |
Phylum or division | Arthropoda | Chordata | Magnoliophyta (Tracheophyta) | Basidiomycota | Pseudomonadota |
Subphylum or subdivision | Hexapoda | Vertebrata | Magnoliophytina (Euphyllophytina) | Agaricomycotina | |
Class | Insecta | Mammalia | Magnoliopsida (Equisetopsida) | Agaricomycetes | Gammaproteobacteria |
Subclass | Pterygota | Theria | Rosidae (Magnoliidae) | Agaricomycetidae | |
Superorder | Panorpida | Euarchontoglires | Rosanae | ||
Order | Diptera | Primates | Fabales | Agaricales | Enterobacterales |
Suborder | Brachycera | Haplorrhini | Fabineae | Agaricineae | |
Family | Drosophilidae | Hominidae | Fabaceae | Amanitaceae | Enterobacteriaceae |
Subfamily | Drosophilinae | Homininae | Faboideae | Amanitoideae | |
Tribe | Drosophilini | Hominini | Fabeae | ||
Genus | Drosophila | Homo | Pisum | Amanita | Escherichia |
Species | D. melanogaster | H. sapiens | P. sativum | A. muscaria | E. coli |
Taxa above the genus level are often given names based on the type genus, with a standard termination. The terminations used in forming these names depend on the kingdom (and sometimes the phylum and class) as set out in the table below.
Pronunciations given are the most Anglicized. More Latinate pronunciations are also common, particularly /ɑː/ rather than /eɪ/ for stressed a.
Rank | Bacteria and Archaea [13] | Embryophytes (Plants) | Algae (Diaphoretickes) | Fungi | Animals | Viruses [14] |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Realm | -viria | |||||
Subrealm | -vira | |||||
Kingdom | -ati [15] | -virae | ||||
Subkingdom | -viretes | |||||
Division/phylum | -ota [16] | -ophyta [17] /ˈɒfətə,ə(ˈ)faɪtə/ | -mycota /maɪˈkoʊtə/ | -viricota /vɪrəˈkoʊtə/ | ||
Subdivision/subphylum | -phytina [17] /fəˈtaɪnə/ | -mycotina /maɪkəˈtaɪnə/ | -viricotina /vɪrəkəˈtaɪnə/ | |||
Class | -ia /iə/ | -opsida /ˈɒpsədə/ | -phyceae /ˈfaɪʃiː/ | -mycetes /maɪˈsiːtiːz/ | -viricetes /vɪrəˈsiːtiːz/ | |
Subclass | -idae /ədiː/ | -phycidae /ˈfɪsədiː/ | -mycetidae /maɪˈsɛtədiː/ | -viricetidae /vɪrəˈsɛtədiː/ | ||
Superorder | -anae /ˈeɪniː/ | |||||
Order | -ales /ˈeɪliːz/ | -ida /ədə/ or -iformes /ə(ˈ)fɔːrmiːz/ | -virales /vaɪˈreɪliːz/ | |||
Suborder | -ineae /ˈɪniːiː/ | -virineae /vəˈrɪniːiː/ | ||||
Infraorder | -aria /ˈɛəriə/ | |||||
Superfamily | -acea /ˈeɪʃə/ | -oidea /ˈɔɪdiːə/ | ||||
Epifamily | -oidae /ˈɔɪdiː/ | |||||
Family | -aceae /ˈeɪʃiː/ | -idae /ədiː/ | -viridae /ˈvɪrədiː/ | |||
Subfamily | -oideae /ˈɔɪdiːiː/ | -inae /ˈaɪniː/ | -virineae /vɪˈrɪniːiː/ | |||
Infrafamily | -odd /ɒd/ [18] | |||||
Tribe | -eae /iːiː/ | -ini /ˈaɪnaɪ/ | ||||
Subtribe | -inae /ˈaɪniː/ | -ina /ˈaɪnə/ | ||||
Infratribe | -ad /æd/ or -iti /ˈaɪti/ | |||||
Genus | -virus | |||||
Subgenus | -virus |
There is an indeterminate number of ranks, as a taxonomist may invent a new rank at will, at any time, if they feel this is necessary. In doing so, there are some restrictions, which will vary with the nomenclature code that applies.[ citation needed ]
The following is an artificial synthesis, solely for purposes of demonstration of relative rank (but see notes), from most general to most specific: [22]
Ranks are assigned based on subjective dissimilarity, and do not fully reflect the gradational nature of variation within nature. In most cases, higher taxonomic groupings arise further back in time: not because the rate of diversification was higher in the past, but because each subsequent diversification event results in an increase of diversity and thus increases the taxonomic rank assigned by present-day taxonomists. [27] Furthermore, some groups have many described species not because they are more diverse than other species, but because they are more easily sampled and studied than other groups.[ citation needed ]
Of these many ranks, the most basic is species. However, this is not to say that a taxon at any other rank may not be sharply defined, or that any species is guaranteed to be sharply defined. It varies from case to case. Ideally, a taxon is intended to represent a clade, that is, the phylogeny of the organisms under discussion, but this is not a requirement.[ citation needed ]
A classification in which all taxa have formal ranks cannot adequately reflect knowledge about phylogeny. Since taxon names are dependent on ranks in traditional Linnaean systems of classification, taxa without ranks cannot be given names. Alternative approaches, such as using circumscriptional names, avoid this problem. [28] [29] The theoretical difficulty with superimposing taxonomic ranks over evolutionary trees is manifested as the boundary paradox which may be illustrated by Darwinian evolutionary models.
There are no rules for how many species should make a genus, a family, or any other higher taxon (that is, a taxon in a category above the species level). [30] [31] It should be a natural group (that is, non-artificial, non-polyphyletic), as judged by a biologist, using all the information available to them. Equally ranked higher taxa in different phyla are not necessarily equivalent (e.g., it is incorrect to assume that families of insects are in some way evolutionarily comparable to families of mollusks). [31] For animals, at least the phylum rank is usually associated with a certain body plan, which is also, however, an arbitrary criterion.[ citation needed ]
There are several acronyms intended to help memorise the taxonomic hierarchy, such as "King Phillip came over for great spaghetti". [32]
Linnaean taxonomy can mean either of two related concepts:
In biology, taxonomy is the scientific study of naming, defining (circumscribing) and classifying groups of biological organisms based on shared characteristics. Organisms are grouped into taxa and these groups are given a taxonomic rank; groups of a given rank can be aggregated to form a more inclusive group of higher rank, thus creating a taxonomic hierarchy. The principal ranks in modern use are domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species. The Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus is regarded as the founder of the current system of taxonomy, as he developed a ranked system known as Linnaean taxonomy for categorizing organisms and binomial nomenclature for naming organisms.
Genus is a taxonomic rank above species and below family as used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms as well as viruses. In binomial nomenclature, the genus name forms the first part of the binomial species name for each species within the genus.
In biological classification, subspecies is a rank below species, used for populations that live in different areas and vary in size, shape, or other physical characteristics (morphology), but that can successfully interbreed. Not all species have subspecies, but for those that do there must be at least two. Subspecies is abbreviated as subsp. or ssp. and the singular and plural forms are the same.
In biology, a taxon is a group of one or more populations of an organism or organisms seen by taxonomists to form a unit. Although neither is required, a taxon is usually known by a particular name and given a particular ranking, especially if and when it is accepted or becomes established. It is very common, however, for taxonomists to remain at odds over what belongs to a taxon and the criteria used for inclusion, especially in the context of rank-based ("Linnaean") nomenclature. If a taxon is given a formal scientific name, its use is then governed by one of the nomenclature codes specifying which scientific name is correct for a particular grouping.
In botanical nomenclature, variety is a taxonomic rank below that of species and subspecies, but above that of form. As such, it gets a three-part infraspecific name. It is sometimes recommended that the subspecies rank should be used to recognize geographic distinctiveness, whereas the variety rank is appropriate if the taxon is seen throughout the geographic range of the species.
In biology, trinomial nomenclature is the system of names for taxa below the rank of species. These names have three parts. The usage is different in zoology and botany.
In biology, a monotypic taxon is a taxonomic group (taxon) that contains only one immediately subordinate taxon. A monotypic species is one that does not include subspecies or smaller, infraspecific taxa. In the case of genera, the term "unispecific" or "monospecific" is sometimes preferred. In botanical nomenclature, a monotypic genus is a genus in the special case where a genus and a single species are simultaneously described. In contrast, an oligotypic taxon contains more than one but only a very few subordinate taxa.
In biology, a type is a particular specimen of an organism to which the scientific name of that organism is formally associated. In other words, a type is an example that serves to anchor or centralizes the defining features of that particular taxon. In older usage, a type was a taxon rather than a specimen.
In biological taxonomy, the type genus is the genus which defines a biological family and the root of the family name.
Incertae sedis or problematica is a term used for a taxonomic group where its broader relationships are unknown or undefined. Alternatively, such groups are frequently referred to as "enigmatic taxa". In the system of open nomenclature, uncertainty at specific taxonomic levels is indicated by incertae familiae, incerti subordinis, incerti ordinis and similar terms.
A botanical name is a formal scientific name conforming to the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN) and, if it concerns a plant cultigen, the additional cultivar or Group epithets must conform to the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP). The code of nomenclature covers "all organisms traditionally treated as algae, fungi, or plants, whether fossil or non-fossil, including blue-green algae (Cyanobacteria), chytrids, oomycetes, slime moulds and photosynthetic protists with their taxonomically related non-photosynthetic groups ."
Botanical nomenclature is the formal, scientific naming of plants. It is related to, but distinct from taxonomy. Plant taxonomy is concerned with grouping and classifying plants; botanical nomenclature then provides names for the results of this process. The starting point for modern botanical nomenclature is Linnaeus' Species Plantarum of 1753. Botanical nomenclature is governed by the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN), which replaces the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN). Fossil plants are also covered by the code of nomenclature.
Nomenclature codes or codes of nomenclature are the various rulebooks that govern the naming of living organisms. Standardizing the scientific names of biological organisms allows researchers to discuss findings.
In botany, an infraspecific name is the scientific name for any taxon below the rank of species, i.e. an infraspecific taxon or infraspecies. A "taxon", plural "taxa", is a group of organisms to be given a particular name. The scientific names of botanical taxa are regulated by the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN). This specifies a three part name for infraspecific taxa, plus a connecting term to indicate the rank of the name. An example of such a name is Astrophytum myriostigma subvar. glabrum, the name of a subvariety of the species Astrophytum myriostigma.
In botanical nomenclature, author citation is the way of citing the person or group of people who validly published a botanical name, i.e. who first published the name while fulfilling the formal requirements as specified by the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN). In cases where a species is no longer in its original generic placement, both the authority for the original genus placement and that for the new combination are given.
In biological classification, circumscriptional names are taxon names that are defined by their circumscription; i.e. the diagnostic feature of the particular set of members included. Such names are not ruled by any nomenclature code and are mainly for taxa above the rank of family, but can be used for taxa of any rank or unranked taxa.
The Botanical and Zoological Codes of nomenclature treat the concept of synonymy differently.
Phylogenetic nomenclature is a method of nomenclature for taxa in biology that uses phylogenetic definitions for taxon names as explained below. This contrasts with the traditional method, by which taxon names are defined by a type, which can be a specimen or a taxon of lower rank, and a description in words. Phylogenetic nomenclature is regulated currently by the International Code of Phylogenetic Nomenclature (PhyloCode).
This is a list of terms and symbols used in scientific names for organisms, and in describing the names. For proper parts of the names themselves, see List of Latin and Greek words commonly used in systematic names. Note that many of the abbreviations are used with or without a stop.
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