Taxonomic rank

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The major ranks: domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species, applied to the red fox, Vulpes vulpes. Taxonomic Rank Graph.svg
The major ranks: domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species, applied to the red fox, Vulpes vulpes.
The hierarchy of biological classification's eight major taxonomic ranks. Intermediate minor rankings are not shown. Biological classification L Pengo vflip.svg DomainKingdomClassOrderFamily
The hierarchy of biological classification's eight major taxonomic ranks. Intermediate minor rankings are not shown.

In biology, taxonomic rank (which some authors prefer to call nomenclatural rank [1] because ranking is part of nomenclature rather than taxonomy proper, according to some definitions of these terms) is the relative or absolute level of a group of organisms (a taxon ) in a hierarchy that reflects evolutionary relationships. Thus, the most inclusive clades (such as Eukarya and Opisthokonta) have the highest ranks, whereas the least inclusive ones (such as Homo sapiens or Bufo bufo) have the lowest ranks. Ranks can be either relative and be denoted by an indented taxonomy in which the level of indentation reflects the rank, or absolute, in which various terms, such as species, genus, family, order, class, phylum, kingdom, and domain designate rank. This page emphasizes absolute ranks and the rank-based codes (the Zoological Code, the Botanical Code, the Code for Cultivated Plants, the Prokaryotic Code, and the Code for Viruses) require them. However, absolute ranks are not required in all nomenclatural systems for taxonomists; for instance, the PhyloCode, [2] the code of phylogenetic nomenclature, does not require absolute ranks.

Contents

Taxa are hierarchical groups of organisms, and their ranks describes their position in this hierarchy. High-ranking taxa (e.g. those considered to be domains or kingdoms, for instance) include more sub-taxa than low-ranking taxa (e.g. those considered genera, species or subspecies). The rank of these taxa reflects inheritance of traits or molecular features from common ancestors. The name of any species and genus are basic; which means that to identify a particular organism, it is usually not necessary to specify names at ranks other than these first two, within a set of taxa covered by a given rank-based code. [3] However, this is not true globally because most rank-based codes are independent from each other, so there are many inter-code homonyms (the same name used for different organisms, often for an animal and for a taxon covered by the botanical code). For this reason, attempts were made at creating a BioCode that would regulate all taxon names, [4] but this attempt has so far failed [5] because of firmly entrenched traditions in each community. [6]

Consider a particular species, the red fox, Vulpes vulpes: in the context of the Zoological Code, the specific epithet vulpes (small v) identifies a particular species in the genus Vulpes (capital V) which comprises all the "true" foxes. Their close relatives are all in the family Canidae, which includes dogs, wolves, jackals, and all foxes; the next higher major taxon, Carnivora (considered an order), includes caniforms (bears, seals, weasels, skunks, raccoons and all those mentioned above), and feliforms (cats, civets, hyenas, mongooses). Carnivorans are one group of the hairy, warm-blooded, nursing members of the class Mammalia, which are classified among animals with notochords in the phylum Chordata, and with them among all animals in the kingdom Animalia. Finally, at the highest rank all of these are grouped together with all other organisms possessing cell nuclei in the domain Eukarya.

The International Code of Zoological Nomenclature defines rank as: "The level, for nomenclatural purposes, of a taxon in a taxonomic hierarchy (e.g. all families are for nomenclatural purposes at the same rank, which lies between superfamily and subfamily)." [7] Note that the discussions on this page generally assume that taxa are clades (monophyletic groups of organisms), but this is required neither by the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature nor by the Botanical Code, and some experts on biological nomenclature do not think that this should be required, [8] and in that case, the hierarchy of taxa (hence, their ranks) does not necessarily reflect the hierarchy of clades.

History

While older approaches to taxonomic classification were phenomenological, forming groups on the basis of similarities in appearance, organic structure and behavior, two important new methods developed in the second half of the 20th century changed drastically taxonomic practice. One is the advent of cladistics, which stemmed from the works of the German entomologist Willi Hennig. [9] Cladistics is a method of classification of life forms according to the proportion of characteristics that they have in common (called synapomorphies). It is assumed that the higher the proportion of characteristics that two organisms share, the more recently they both came from a common ancestor. The second one is molecular systematics, based on genetic analysis, which can provide much additional data that prove especially useful when few phenotypic characters can resolve relationships, as, for instance, in many viruses, bacteria [10] and archaea, or to resolve relationships between taxa that arose in a fast evolutionary radiation that occurred long ago, such as the main taxa of placental mammals. [11]

Main ranks

In his landmark publications, such as the Systema Naturae , Carl Linnaeus used a ranking scale limited to kingdom, class, order, genus, species, and one rank below species. Today, the nomenclature is regulated by the nomenclature codes. There are seven main taxonomic ranks: kingdom, phylum or division, class, order, family, genus, and species. In addition, domain (proposed by Carl Woese) is now widely used as a fundamental rank, although it is not mentioned in any of the nomenclature codes, and is a synonym for dominion (Latin : dominium), introduced by Moore in 1974. [12] [13]

Main taxonomic ranks
LatinEnglish
regio domain
regnum kingdom
phylum phylum (in zoology) / division (in botany)
classis class
ordo order
familia family
genus genus
species species

A taxon is usually assigned a rank when it is given its formal name. The basic ranks are species and genus. When an organism is given a species name it is assigned to a genus, and the genus name is part of the species name.

The species name is also called a binomial, that is, a two-term name. For example, the zoological name for the human species is Homo sapiens. This is usually italicized in print or underlined when italics are not available. In this case, Homo is the generic name and it is capitalized; sapiens indicates the species and it is not capitalized. While not always used, some species include a subspecific epithet. For instance, modern humans are Homo sapiens sapiens, or H. sapiens sapiens.

In zoological nomenclature, higher taxon names are normally not italicized, but the Botanical Code, the Prokaryotic Code, the Code for Viruses, the draft BioCode [4] and the PhyloCode [2] all recommend italicizing all taxon names (of all ranks).

Ranks in zoology

There are rules applying to the following taxonomic ranks in the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature: superfamily, family, subfamily, tribe, subtribe, genus, subgenus, species, subspecies. [14]

The International Code of Zoological Nomenclature divides names into "family-group names", "genus-group names" and "species-group names". The Code explicitly mentions the following ranks for these categories: [14] :§29–31

The rules in the Code apply to the ranks of superfamily to subspecies, and only to some extent to those above the rank of superfamily. Among "genus-group names" and "species-group names" no further ranks are officially allowed, which creates problems when naming taxa in these groups in speciose clades, such as Rana . [15] Zoologists sometimes use additional terms such as species group, species subgroup, species complex and superspecies for convenience as extra, but unofficial, ranks between the subgenus and species levels in taxa with many species, e.g. the genus Drosophila . (Note the potentially confusing use of "species group" as both a category of ranks as well as an unofficial rank itself. For this reason, Alain Dubois has been using the alternative expressions "nominal-series", "family-series", "genus-series" and "species-series" (among others) at least since 2000. [16] [15] )

At higher ranks (family and above) a lower level may be denoted by adding the prefix "infra", meaning lower, to the rank. For example, infraorder (below suborder) or infrafamily (below subfamily).

Names of zoological taxa

Ranks in botany

Botanical ranks categorize organisms based (often) on their relationships (monophyly is not required by that clade, which does not even mention this word, nor that of "clade"). They start with Kingdom, then move to Division (or Phylum), [17] Class, Order, Family, Genus, and Species. Taxa at each rank generally possess shared characteristics and evolutionary history. Understanding these ranks aids in taxonomy and studying biodiversity.

Ranks in ICN [18] :CHAPTER III
RankTypeSuffix
kingdom (regnum)primary
subregnumfurther
division (divisio)
phylum (phylum)
primary‑phyta
-mycota (fungi)
subdivisio or subphylumfurther‑phytina
-mycotina (fungi)
class (classis)primary‑opsida (plant)
‑phyceae (algae)
-mycetes (fungi)
subclassisfurther‑idae (plant)
‑phycidae (algae)
-mycetidae (fungi)
order (ordo)primary-ales
subordofurther-ineae
family (familia)primary-aceae
subfamiliafurther‑oideae
tribe (tribus)secondary-eae
subtribusfurther‑inae
genus (genus)primary
subgenusfurther
section (sectio)secondary
subsectiofurther
series (series)secondary
subseriesfurther
species (species)primary
subspeciesfurther
variety (varietas)secondary
subvarietasfurther
form (forma)secondary
subformafurther

There are definitions of the following taxonomic categories in the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants: cultivar group, cultivar, grex.

The rules in the ICN apply primarily to the ranks of family and below, and only to some extent to those above the rank of family. (See also descriptive botanical name.)

Names of botanical taxa

Taxa at the rank of genus and above have a botanical name in one part (unitary name); those at the rank of species and above (but below genus) have a botanical name in two parts (binary name); all taxa below the rank of species have a botanical name in three parts (an infraspecific name). To indicate the rank of the infraspecific name, a "connecting term" is needed. Thus Poa secunda subsp. juncifolia, where "subsp". is an abbreviation for "subspecies", is the name of a subspecies of Poa secunda . [19]

Hybrids can be specified either by a "hybrid formula" that specifies the parentage, or may be given a name. For hybrids receiving a hybrid name, the same ranks apply, prefixed with notho (Greek: 'bastard'), with nothogenus as the highest permitted rank. [20]

Outdated names for botanical ranks

If a different term for the rank was used in an old publication, but the intention is clear, botanical nomenclature specifies certain substitutions:[ citation needed ]

  • If names were "intended as names of orders, but published with their rank denoted by a term such as": "cohors" [Latin for "cohort"; [21] see also cohort study for the use of the term in ecology], "nixus", "alliance", or "Reihe" instead of "order" (Article 17.2), they are treated as names of orders.
  • "Family" is substituted for "order" (ordo) or "natural order" (ordo naturalis) under certain conditions where the modern meaning of "order" was not intended. (Article 18.2)
  • "Subfamily is substituted for "suborder" (subordo) under certain conditions where the modern meaning of "suborder" was not intended. (Article 19.2)
  • In a publication prior to 1 January 1890, if only one infraspecific rank is used, it is considered to be that of variety. (Article 37.4) This commonly applies to publications that labelled infraspecific taxa with Greek letters, α, β, γ, ...

Examples

Classifications of five species follow: the fruit fly familiar in genetics laboratories (Drosophila melanogaster), humans (Homo sapiens), the peas used by Gregor Mendel in his discovery of genetics (Pisum sativum), the "fly agaric" mushroom Amanita muscaria , and the bacterium Escherichia coli . The eight major ranks are given in bold; a selection of minor ranks are given as well.

Rank Fruit fly Human Pea Fly agaric E. coli
Domain Eukarya Eukarya Eukarya Eukarya Bacteria
Kingdom Animalia Animalia Plantae Fungi Pseudomonadati [22]
Phylum or division Arthropoda Chordata Magnoliophyta (Tracheophyta) Basidiomycota Pseudomonadota
Subphylum or subdivision Hexapoda Vertebrata Magnoliophytina (Euphyllophytina) Agaricomycotina
Class Insecta Mammalia Magnoliopsida (Equisetopsida) Agaricomycetes Gammaproteobacteria
Subclass Pterygota Theria Rosidae (Magnoliidae) Agaricomycetidae
Superorder Panorpida Euarchontoglires Rosanae
Order Diptera Primates Fabales Agaricales Enterobacterales
Suborder Brachycera Haplorrhini FabineaeAgaricineae
Family Drosophilidae Hominidae Fabaceae Amanitaceae Enterobacteriaceae
Subfamily Drosophilinae Homininae Faboideae Amanitoideae
Tribe Drosophilini Hominini Fabeae
Genus Drosophila Homo Pisum Amanita Escherichia
Species D. melanogaster H. sapiens P. sativum A. muscaria E. coli
Table notes

Terminations of names

Taxa above the genus level are often given names based on the type genus, with a standard termination. The terminations used in forming these names depend on the kingdom (and sometimes the phylum and class) as set out in the table below.

Pronunciations given are the most Anglicized. More Latinate pronunciations are also common, particularly /ɑː/ rather than // for stressed a.

Rank Viruses [24] Bacteria and Archaea [25] Embryophytes (Plants) Algae (Diaphoretickes) Fungi Animals
Realm-viria
Subrealm-vira
Kingdom-virae-ati [26]
Subkingdom-viretes
Division/phylum-viricota /vɪrəˈktə/ -ota [27] -ophyta [28] /ˈɒfətə,ə(ˈ)ftə/ -mycota /mˈktə/
Subdivision/subphylum-viricotina /vɪrəkəˈtnə/ -phytina [28] /fəˈtnə/ -mycotina /mkəˈtnə/
Class-viricetes /vɪrəˈstz/ -ia /iə/ -opsida /ˈɒpsədə/ -phyceae /ˈfʃ/ -mycetes /mˈstz/
Subclass-viricetidae /vɪrəˈsɛtəd/ -idae /əd/ -phycidae /ˈfɪsəd/ -mycetidae /mˈsɛtəd/
Superorder-anae /ˈn/
Order-virales /vˈrlz/ -ales /ˈlz/ -ida /ədə/ or -iformes /ə(ˈ)fɔːrmz/
Suborder-virineae /vəˈrɪn/ -ineae /ˈɪn/
Infraorder-aria /ˈɛəriə/
Superfamily-acea /ˈʃə/ -oidea /ˈɔɪdə/
Epifamily-oidae /ˈɔɪd/
Family-viridae /ˈvɪrəd/ -aceae /ˈʃ/ -idae /əd/
Subfamily-virineae /vɪˈrɪn/ -oideae /ˈɔɪd/ -inae /ˈn/
Infrafamily-odd /ɒd/ [29]
Tribe-eae // -ini /ˈn/
Subtribe-inae /ˈn/ -ina /ˈnə/
Infratribe-ad /æd/ or -iti /ˈti/
Genus-virus
Subgenus-virus
Table notes

All ranks

There is an indeterminate number of ranks, as a taxonomist may invent a new rank at will, at any time, if they feel this is necessary. In doing so, there are some restrictions, which will vary with the nomenclature code that applies.[ citation needed ]

The following is an artificial synthesis, solely for purposes of demonstration of absolute rank (but see notes), from most general to most specific: [33]

Significance and problems

Ranks are assigned based on subjective dissimilarity, and do not fully reflect the gradational nature of variation within nature. These problems were already identified by Willi Hennig, who advocated dropping them in 1969, [38] and this position gathered support from Graham C. D. Griffiths only a few years later. [39] In fact, these ranks were proposed in a fixist context and the advent of evolution sapped the foundations of this system, as was recognised long ago; the introduction of The Code of Nomenclature and Check-list of North American Birds Adopted by the American Ornithologists' Union published in 1886 states "No one appears to have suspected, in 1842 [when the Strickland code was drafted], that the Linnaean system was not the permanent heritage of science, or that in a few years a theory of evolution was to sap its very foundations, by radically changing men's conceptions of those things to which names were to be furnished." [40] Such ranks are used simply because they are required by the rank-based codes; because of this, some systematists prefer to call them nomenclatural ranks. [1] [6] In most cases, higher taxonomic groupings arise further back in time, simply because the most inclusive taxa necessarily appeared first. [41] Furthermore, the diversity in some major taxa (such as vertebrates and angiosperms) is better known than that of others (such as fungi, arthropods and nematodes) not because they are more diverse than other taxa, but because they are more easily sampled and studied than other taxa, or because they attract more interest and funding for research. [42] [43]

Of these many ranks, many systematists consider that the most basic (or important) is the species, but this opinion is not universally shared. [44] [45] [46] Thus, species are not necessarily more sharply defined than taxa at any other rank, and in fact, given the phenotypic gaps created by extinction, in practice, the reverse is often the case. [6] Ideally, a taxon is intended to represent a clade, that is, the phylogeny of the organisms under discussion, but this is not a requirement of the zoological and botanical codes. [6]

A classification in which all taxa have formal ranks cannot adequately reflect knowledge about phylogeny. Since taxon names are dependent on ranks in rank-based (Linnaean) nomenclature, taxa without ranks cannot be given names. Alternative approaches, such as phylogenetic nomenclature, [47] [48] as implemented under the PhyloCode and supported by the International Society for Phylogenetic Nomenclature, [49] or using circumscriptional names, avoid this problem. [50] [51] The theoretical difficulty with superimposing taxonomic ranks over evolutionary trees is manifested as the boundary paradox which may be illustrated by Darwinian evolutionary models.

There are no rules for how many species should make a genus, a family, or any other higher taxon (that is, a taxon in a category above the species level). [52] [53] It should be a natural group (that is, non-artificial, non-polyphyletic), as judged by a biologist, using all the information available to them. Equally ranked higher taxa in different phyla are not necessarily equivalent in terms of time of origin, phenotypic distinctiveness or number of lower-ranking included taxa (e.g., it is incorrect to assume that families of insects are in some way evolutionarily comparable to families of mollusks). [53] [54] [6] Of all criteria that have been advocated to rank taxa, age of origin has been the most frequently advocated. Willi Hennig proposed it in 1966, [9] but he concluded in 1969 [38] that this system was unworkable and suggested dropping absolute ranks. However, the idea of ranking taxa using the age of origin (either as the sole criterion, or as one of the main ones) persists under the name of time banding, and is still advocated by several authors. [55] [56] [57] [58] For animals, at least the phylum rank is usually associated with a certain body plan, which is also, however, an arbitrary criterion.[ citation needed ]

Enigmatic taxa

Enigmatic taxa are taxonomic groups whose broader relationships are unknown or undefined. [59] (See Incertae sedis.)

Mnemonic

There are several acronyms intended to help memorise the taxonomic hierarchy, such as "King Phillip came over for great spaghetti". [60] (See taxonomy mnemonic.)

See also

Footnotes

  1. The Virginia opossum is an exception.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Linnaean taxonomy</span> Rank based classification system for organisms

Linnaean taxonomy can mean either of two related concepts:

  1. The particular form of biological classification (taxonomy) set up by Carl Linnaeus, as set forth in his Systema Naturae (1735) and subsequent works. In the taxonomy of Linnaeus there are three kingdoms, divided into classes, and the classes divided into lower ranks in a hierarchical order.
  2. A term for rank-based classification of organisms, in general. That is, taxonomy in the traditional sense of the word: rank-based scientific classification. This term is especially used as opposed to cladistic systematics, which groups organisms into clades. It is attributed to Linnaeus, although he neither invented the concept of ranked classification nor gave it its present form. In fact, it does not have an exact present form, as "Linnaean taxonomy" as such does not really exist: it is a collective (abstracting) term for what actually are several separate fields, which use similar approaches.

In biology, taxonomy is the scientific study of naming, defining (circumscribing) and classifying groups of biological organisms based on shared characteristics. Organisms are grouped into taxa and these groups are given a taxonomic rank; groups of a given rank can be aggregated to form a more inclusive group of higher rank, thus creating a taxonomic hierarchy. The principal ranks in modern use are domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species. The Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus is regarded as the founder of the current system of taxonomy, as he developed a ranked system known as Linnaean taxonomy for categorizing organisms and binomial nomenclature for naming organisms.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Genus</span> Taxonomic rank directly above species and directly below family

Genus is a taxonomic rank above species and below family as used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms as well as viruses. In binomial nomenclature, the genus name forms the first part of the binomial species name for each species within the genus.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Binomial nomenclature</span> Species naming system

In taxonomy, binomial nomenclature, also called binary nomenclature, is a formal system of naming species of living things by giving each a name composed of two parts, both of which use Latin grammatical forms, although they can be based on words from other languages. Such a name is called a binomial name, a binomen, binominal name, or a scientific name; more informally it is also historically called a Latin name. In the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN), the system is also called binominal nomenclature, with an "n" before the "al" in "binominal", which is not a typographic error, meaning "two-name naming system".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Family (biology)</span> Taxonomic rank between genus and order

Family is one of the eight major hierarchical taxonomic ranks in Linnaean taxonomy. It is classified between order and genus. A family may be divided into subfamilies, which are intermediate ranks between the ranks of family and genus. The official family names are Latin in origin; however, popular names are often used: for example, walnut trees and hickory trees belong to the family Juglandaceae, but that family is commonly referred to as the "walnut family".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Order (biology)</span> Taxonomic rank between class and family

Order is one of the eight major hierarchical taxonomic ranks in Linnaean taxonomy. It is classified between family and class. In biological classification, the order is a taxonomic rank used in the classification of organisms and recognized by the nomenclature codes. An immediately higher rank, superorder, is sometimes added directly above order, with suborder directly beneath order. An order can also be defined as a group of related families.

Division is a taxonomic rank in biological classification that is used differently in zoology and in botany.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Subspecies</span> Taxonomic rank subordinate to species

In biological classification, subspecies is a rank below species, used for populations that live in different areas and vary in size, shape, or other physical characteristics (morphology), but that can successfully interbreed. Not all species have subspecies, but for those that do there must be at least two. Subspecies is abbreviated as subsp. or ssp. and the singular and plural forms are the same.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Taxon</span> Grouping of biological populations

In biology, a taxon is a group of one or more populations of an organism or organisms seen by taxonomists to form a unit. Although neither is required, a taxon is usually known by a particular name and given a particular ranking, especially if and when it is accepted or becomes established. It is very common, however, for taxonomists to remain at odds over what belongs to a taxon and the criteria used for inclusion, especially in the context of rank-based ("Linnaean") nomenclature. If a taxon is given a formal scientific name, its use is then governed by one of the nomenclature codes specifying which scientific name is correct for a particular grouping.

In biology, trinomial nomenclature is the system of names for taxa below the rank of species. These names have three parts. The usage is different in zoology and botany.

In biology, a monotypic taxon is a taxonomic group (taxon) that contains only one immediately subordinate taxon. A monotypic species is one that does not include subspecies or smaller, infraspecific taxa. In the case of genera, the term "unispecific" or "monospecific" is sometimes preferred. In botanical nomenclature, a monotypic genus is a genus in the special case where a genus and a single species are simultaneously described.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Type (biology)</span> Specimen(s) to which a scientific name is formally attached

In biology, a type is a particular specimen of an organism to which the scientific name of that organism is formally associated. In other words, a type is an example that serves to anchor or centralizes the defining features of that particular taxon. In older usage, a type was a taxon rather than a specimen.

<i>Incertae sedis</i> Term to indicate an uncertain taxonomic position

Incertae sedis or problematica is a term used for a taxonomic group where its broader relationships are unknown or undefined. Alternatively, such groups are frequently referred to as "enigmatic taxa". In the system of open nomenclature, uncertainty at specific taxonomic levels is indicated by incertae familiae, incerti subordinis, incerti ordinis and similar terms.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Botanical name</span> Scientific name for a plant, alga or fungus

A botanical name is a formal scientific name conforming to the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN) and, if it concerns a plant cultigen, the additional cultivar or Group epithets must conform to the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP). The code of nomenclature covers "all organisms traditionally treated as algae, fungi, or plants, whether fossil or non-fossil, including blue-green algae (Cyanobacteria), chytrids, oomycetes, slime moulds and photosynthetic protists with their taxonomically related non-photosynthetic groups ."

Botanical nomenclature is the formal, scientific naming of plants. It is related to, but distinct from taxonomy. Plant taxonomy is concerned with grouping and classifying plants; botanical nomenclature then provides names for the results of this process. The starting point for modern botanical nomenclature is Linnaeus' Species Plantarum of 1753. Botanical nomenclature is governed by the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN), which replaces the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN). Fossil plants are also covered by the code of nomenclature.

Nomenclature codes or codes of nomenclature are the various rulebooks that govern the naming of living organisms. Standardizing the scientific names of biological organisms allows researchers to discuss findings.

In botany, an infraspecific name is the scientific name for any taxon below the rank of species, i.e. an infraspecific taxon or infraspecies. The scientific names of botanical taxa are regulated by the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN). As specified by the ICN, the name of an infraspecific taxon is a combination of the name of a species and an infraspecific epithet, separated by a connecting term that denotes the rank of the taxon. An example of an infraspecific name is Astrophytum myriostigma subvar. glabrum, the name of a subvariety of the species Astrophytum myriostigma. In the previous example, glabrum is the infraspecific epithet.

The Botanical and Zoological Codes of nomenclature treat the concept of synonymy differently.

Phylogenetic nomenclature is a method of nomenclature for taxa in biology that uses phylogenetic definitions for taxon names as explained below. This contrasts with the traditional method, by which taxon names are defined by a type, which can be a specimen or a taxon of lower rank, and a description in words. Phylogenetic nomenclature is regulated currently by the International Code of Phylogenetic Nomenclature (PhyloCode).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Glossary of scientific naming</span>

This is a list of terms and symbols used in scientific names for organisms, and in describing the names. For proper parts of the names themselves, see List of Latin and Greek words commonly used in systematic names. Note that many of the abbreviations are used with or without a stop.

References

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  29. For example, the chelonian infrafamilies Chelodd (Gaffney & Meylan 1988: 169) and Baenodd (ibid., 176).
  30. ICZN article 29.2
  31. Pearse, A.S. (1936) Zoological names. A list of phyla, classes, and orders, prepared for section F, American Association for the Advancement of Science. Archived 15 November 2021 at the Wayback Machine American Association for the Advancement of Science, p. 4
  32. As supplied by Gaffney & Meylan (1988).
  33. For the general usage of zoological ranks between the phylum and family levels, including many intercalary ranks, see Carroll (1988). For additional intercalary ranks in zoology, see especially Gaffney & Meylan (1988); McKenna & Bell (1997); Milner (1988); Novacek (1986, cit. in Carroll 1988: 499, 629); and Paul Sereno's 1986 classification of ornithischian dinosaurs as reported in Lambert (1990: 149, 159). For botanical ranks, including many intercalary ranks, see Willis & McElwain (2002).
  34. 1 2 3 4 These are movable ranks, most often inserted between the class and the legion or cohort. Nevertheless, their positioning in the zoological hierarchy may be subject to wide variation. For examples, see the Benton classification of vertebrates Archived 16 January 2019 at the Wayback Machine (2005).
  35. 1 2 3 4 In zoological classification, the cohort and its associated group of ranks are inserted between the class group and the ordinal group. The cohort has also been used between infraorder and family in saurischian dinosaurs (Benton Archived 16 January 2019 at the Wayback Machine 2005). In botanical classification, the cohort group has sometimes been inserted between the division (phylum) group and the class group: see Willis & McElwain (2002: 100–101), or has sometimes been used at the rank of order, and is now considered to be an obsolete name for order: See International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants, Melbourne Code 2012, Article 17.2.
  36. 1 2 3 4 5 The supra-ordinal sequence gigaorder–megaorder–capaxorder–hyperorder (and the microorder, in roughly the position most often assigned to the parvorder) has been employed in turtles at least (Gaffney & Meylan 1988), while the parallel sequence magnorder–grandorder–mirorder figures in recently influential classifications of mammals. It is unclear from the sources how these two sequences are to be coordinated (or interwoven) within a unitary zoological hierarchy of ranks. Previously, Novacek (1986) and McKenna-Bell (1997) had inserted mirorders and grandorders between the order and superorder, but Benton (2005) now positions both of these ranks above the superorder.
  37. Additionally, the terms biovar, morphovar, phagovar, and serovar designate bacterial strains (genetic variants) that are physiologically or biochemically distinctive. These are not taxonomic ranks, but are groupings of various sorts which may define a bacterial subspecies.
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