Vaccination and religion

Last updated

Vaccination and religion have interrelations of varying kinds. No major religion prohibits vaccinations, and some consider it an obligation because of the potential to save lives. [1] However, some people cite religious adherence [2] as a basis for opting to forego vaccinating themselves or their children. [3] Many such objections are pretextual: in Australia, anti-vaccinationists founded the Church of Conscious Living, a "fake church", [4] leading to religious exemptions being removed in that country, and one US pastor was reported to offer vaccine exemptions in exchange for online membership of his church. [5]

Contents

Historical

The influential Massachusetts preacher Cotton Mather was the first known person to attempt smallpox inoculation on a large scale, inoculating himself and more than two hundred members of his congregation with the help of a local doctor. While his view later became standard, there was a strong negative reaction against him at the time. [6]

Rowland Hill (1744–1833) was a popular English preacher acquainted with Edward Jenner, the pioneer of smallpox vaccination, and he encouraged the vaccination of the congregations he visited or preached to. [7] He published a tract on the subject in 1806, [8] at a time when many medical men refused to sanction it. Later he became a member of the Royal Jennererian Society, which was established when vaccination was accepted in Britain, India, the US, and elsewhere. John C. Lettsom, an eminent Quaker physician of the day wrote to Rowland Hill commenting:

You have done more good than you imagine; and for everyone you may have saved by your actual operation, you have saved ten by your example; and perhaps, next to Jenner, have been the means of saving more lives than any other individual. [9]

Several Boston clergymen and devout physicians formed a society that opposed vaccination in 1798. [10] Others complained that the practice was dangerous, going so far as to demand that doctors who carried out these procedures be tried for attempted murder. [11]

In 1804 during an outbreak of smallpox in New Spain Fr. Manuel Abad y Queipo personally paid for and brought the smallpox vaccine from the Capital to Valladolid [12]

In 1816 Iceland made the clergy responsible for smallpox vaccination and gave them the responsibility of keeping vaccination records for their parishes; Sweden also had similar practices. [13]

When vaccination was introduced into UK public policy, and adoption followed overseas, there was opposition from trade unionists and others, including sectarian ministers and those interested in self-help and alternative medicines like homeopathy. [14]

Anti-vaccinationists were most common in Protestant countries. Those who were religious often came from minority religious movements outside of mainstream Protestantism, including Quakers in England and Baptists in Sweden. [15]

Catholic and Anglican missionaries vaccinated Northwest Coast Native Americans during an 1862 smallpox epidemic. [16]

In the UK, a number of Vaccination Acts were introduced to control vaccination and inoculation, starting in 1840, when smallpox inoculation was banned. The 1853 Act introduced compulsory free infant vaccination enforced by local authorities. By 1871, infant vaccination was compulsory and parents refusing to have their child vaccinated were fined and imprisoned if the fines were not paid. Resistance to compulsion grew, and in 1889, after riots in Leicester, a Royal Commission was appointed and issued six reports between 1892 and 1896. It recommended the abolition of cumulative penalties. This was done in an 1898 Act, which also introduced a conscience clause that exempted parents who did not believe vaccination was efficacious or safe. This extended the concept of the "conscientious objector" in English law. A further Act in 1907 made it easier to obtain exemption.[ citation needed ]

Jehovah's Witnesses condemned the practice of vaccination in 1931 as "a direct violation of the everlasting covenant that God made with Noah after the flood", [17] but reversed that policy in 1952. The decision of whether to vaccinate themselves or their family is left to individuals. Some more recent Jehovah's Witness publications have mentioned the success of vaccination programs. [18]

Current

Some conservative Christian groups in the United States oppose mandatory vaccination for diseases typically spread via sexual contact, arguing that the possibility of disease deters risky sexual contact [ citation needed ]. For example, the Family Research Council opposes mandatory vaccination against HPV, a virus that causes [19] [20] various cancers: "Our primary concern is with the message that would be delivered to nine- to twelve-year-olds with the administration of the vaccines. Care must be taken not to communicate that such an intervention makes all sex 'safe'." [21] [22] [23] Studies have shown that HPV vaccination does not result in increased sexual activity. [24] Other Christians have supported vaccinations and mask wearing in the wake of COVID-19 to stop the spread of the disease, even using scripture to support the position. [25] [26]

Islam and Judaism, religions with dietary prohibitions that regard particular animals as unclean, make exceptions for medical treatments derived from those animals. [27] [28] However, this may not be universally accepted due to a lack of central authority in these religions. For example, in Aceh Province, an autonomous province of Indonesia with its own Islamic Sharia Law, eighty percent of people refuse all vaccinations due to concerns about pig, or its derivatives, being used to make some vaccines (eating pig is considered haram). [29]

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints has made vaccination an official initiative in its humanitarian relief program. [30] [31] The Church has also called on its members to see that their own children are properly vaccinated. [32] In March 2021, the Church added encouragement to vaccinate to its General Handbook of Instructions, noting that "Vaccinations administered by competent medical professionals protect health and preserve life. ... Members of the Church are encouraged to safeguard themselves, their children, and their communities through vaccination." [33] In August 2021, the Church again encouraged vaccination, specifically against COVID-19, in a public statement from the First Presidency: "We know that protection from [Covid and its variants] can only be achieved by immunizing a very high percentage of the population.... To provide personal protection from such severe infections, we urge individuals to be vaccinated." [34]

Although the Church of Christ, Scientist encourages reliance on prayer, it does not forbid vaccination or any other medical practice, [35] [36] [37] [38] and in 2015 it did not renew its application for religious exemption for vaccinations in Australia because it deemed the exemption "no longer current or necessary". [39]

The Congregation of Universal Wisdom, a religion based on belief in chiropractic spinal adjustments and Universal Intelligence, forbids vaccinations. [40] [41] The New York Times covered the Congregation of Universal Wisdom and noted that many families have used these religious memberships to avoid vaccination requirements. [42] In a court case citing the Congregation of Universal Wisdom, Turner v. Liverpool Cent. School, the United States District Court in New York affirmed the permissibility of claiming religious exemption from vaccination on the basis of such membership. [43]

The use of fetal tissue in vaccine development has also provoked some controversy among religions opposed to abortion. The cell culture media of some viral vaccines, and the virus of the rubella vaccine, are derived from tissues taken from aborted fetuses, leading to moral questions. For example, the principle of double effect, originated by Thomas Aquinas, holds that actions with both good and bad consequences are morally acceptable in specific circumstances, and the question is how this principle applies to vaccination. [44] The Vatican Curia has expressed concern about the rubella vaccine's embryonic cell origin, saying Catholics have "... a grave responsibility to use alternative vaccines and to make a conscientious objection with regard to those which have moral problems". [45] The Vatican concluded that until an alternative becomes available it is acceptable for Catholics to use the existing vaccine, writing, "This is an unjust alternative choice, which must be eliminated as soon as possible." [45]

Political opposition to vaccination by religious groups

Opposition to vaccination by Orthodox Jews is not a widespread phenomenon. The majority of Orthodox Rabbis view vaccination as a religious obligation. [46] A magazine called P.E.A.C.H. that presented an anti-immunization message to Orthodox Jews was distributed in Brooklyn, New York in early 2014. 96% of students at Yeshivas (who are essentially all Orthodox Jewish) in New York City were immunized according to information obtained in 2014, although this is a lower than average rate. [47]

In 2003 imams in northern Nigeria advised their followers not to have their children vaccinated with oral polio vaccine, perceived to be a plot by Westerners to decrease Muslim fertility. [48] The boycott caused the number of polio cases to rise not only in Nigeria but also in neighboring countries. The followers were also wary of other vaccinations, and Nigeria reported more than twenty thousand measles cases and nearly six hundred deaths from measles from January through March 2005. [49] In 2006 Nigeria accounted for more than half of all new polio cases worldwide. [50] Outbreaks continued thereafter; for example, at least 200 children died in a late-2007 measles outbreak in Borno State. [51] In 2013, nine health workers administering polio vaccine were targeted and killed by gunmen on motorcycles in Kano, but this was an isolated incident. [52] [53] Local traditional and religious leaders and polio survivors worked to support the vaccination campaign, [54] and Nigeria has not had a polio case since July 24, 2014; in 2016, Nigeria was declared polio-free. [55]

In the 2000s, in Pakistan and Afghanistan, some Taliban issued fatwas opposing vaccination as an American plot to sterilize Muslims, and kidnapped, beat, and assassinated vaccination officials; the head of Pakistan's vaccination campaign in Bajaur Agency was assassinated in 2007, on his way back from a meeting with a religious leader. [56] [57] In 2011, a CIA spy ran a fake hepatitis vaccination campaign to search for Osama bin Laden; such actions were strongly condemned by US [58] and international health NGOs, [56] the doctor involved was jailed [59] and the CIA promised not to use vaccination as a cover again. [60] A genuine polio vaccinator had previously vaccinated Osama bin Laden's children and grandchildren in his compound in Abbottabad. [61] Both major sides of the Afghan civil war now support polio vaccination, [62] and polio rates are declining rapidly in Afghanistan, with only five cases in January–July 2015. [54] In Pakistan there were 28 cases in the same period. [54]

In 2015, leaders of the Nation of Islam spoke out against a California Bill that removed philosophical exemptions to school vaccination requirements, [63] alleging a link between MMR vaccine and autism. They also said that government mandated vaccines were another Tuskegee Syphilis Study. [64]

According to a March 2021 poll conducted by The Associated Press/NORC, vaccine skepticism is more widespread among white evangelicals than most other blocs of Americans. 40% of white evangelical Protestants stated they weren't likely to get vaccinated against COVID-19. [65]

Exemptions

In the U.S., all states except Mississippi, California, West Virginia, Maine and New York allow parents to exempt their children from otherwise-required vaccinations for religious reasons. [66] The number of religious exemptions rose greatly in the late 1990s and early 2000s; for example, in Massachusetts, the rate of those seeking exemptions rose from 0.24% in 1996 to 0.60% in 2006. [67] Some parents falsely claim religious beliefs to get exemptions. [68] The American Medical Association opposes such exemptions, saying that they endanger health not only for the unvaccinated individual but also for neighbors and the community at large. [69]

On January 1, 2016, Australia introduced legislation that removed eligibility for childcare and welfare benefits if parents refuse to vaccinate their children, removing religious exemptions at the same time as the only religion to apply for an exemption (Church of Christ, Scientist) deemed their exemption to no longer be relevant. [39]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vaccination</span> Administration of a vaccine to protect against disease

Vaccination is the administration of a vaccine to help the immune system develop immunity from a disease. Vaccines contain a microorganism or virus in a weakened, live or killed state, or proteins or toxins from the organism. In stimulating the body's adaptive immunity, they help prevent sickness from an infectious disease. When a sufficiently large percentage of a population has been vaccinated, herd immunity results. Herd immunity protects those who may be immunocompromised and cannot get a vaccine because even a weakened version would harm them. The effectiveness of vaccination has been widely studied and verified. Vaccination is the most effective method of preventing infectious diseases; widespread immunity due to vaccination is largely responsible for the worldwide eradication of smallpox and the elimination of diseases such as polio and tetanus from much of the world. However, some diseases, such as measles outbreaks in America, have seen rising cases due to relatively low vaccination rates in the 2010s – attributed, in part, to vaccine hesitancy. According to the World Health Organization, vaccination prevents 3.5–5 million deaths per year.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vaccine</span> Pathogen-derived preparation that provides acquired immunity to an infectious disease

A vaccine is a biological preparation that provides active acquired immunity to a particular infectious or malignant disease. The safety and effectiveness of vaccines has been widely studied and verified. A vaccine typically contains an agent that resembles a disease-causing microorganism and is often made from weakened or killed forms of the microbe, its toxins, or one of its surface proteins. The agent stimulates the body's immune system to recognize the agent as a threat, destroy it, and recognize further and destroy any of the microorganisms associated with that agent that it may encounter in the future.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Immunization</span> Process by which an individuals immune system becomes fortified against an infectious agent

Immunization, or immunisation, is the process by which an individual's immune system becomes fortified against an infectious agent.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pulse Polio</span> Indian governmental immunisation campaign

Pulse Polio is an immunisation campaign established by the government of India to eliminate poliomyelitis (polio) in India by vaccinating all children under the age of five years against the polio virus. The project fights polio through a large-scale, pulse vaccination programme and monitoring for poliomyelitis cases.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vaccine hesitancy</span> Reluctance or refusal to be vaccinated or have ones children vaccinated

Vaccine hesitancy is a delay in acceptance, or refusal, of vaccines despite the availability of vaccine services and supporting evidence. The term covers refusals to vaccinate, delaying vaccines, accepting vaccines but remaining uncertain about their use, or using certain vaccines but not others. The scientific consensus that vaccines are generally safe and effective is overwhelming. Vaccine hesitancy often results in disease outbreaks and deaths from vaccine-preventable diseases. Therefore, the World Health Organization characterizes vaccine hesitancy as one of the top ten global health threats.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vaccination schedule</span> Series of vaccinations

A vaccination schedule is a series of vaccinations, including the timing of all doses, which may be either recommended or compulsory, depending on the country of residence. A vaccine is an antigenic preparation used to produce active immunity to a disease, in order to prevent or reduce the effects of infection by any natural or "wild" pathogen. Vaccines go through multiple phases of trials to ensure safety and effectiveness.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Polio eradication</span> Effort to permanently eliminate all cases of poliomyelitis infection

Polio eradication, the permanent global cessation of circulation of the poliovirus and hence elimination of the poliomyelitis (polio) it causes, is the aim of a multinational public health effort begun in 1988, led by the World Health Organization (WHO), the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) and the Rotary Foundation. These organizations, along with the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and The Gates Foundation, have spearheaded the campaign through the Global Polio Eradication Initiative (GPEI). Successful eradication of infectious diseases has been achieved twice before, with smallpox in humans and rinderpest in ruminants.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">International Certificate of Vaccination or Prophylaxis</span> International certificate of vaccination

The International Certificate of Vaccination or Prophylaxis (ICVP), also known as the Carte Jaune or Yellow Card, is an official vaccination report created by the World Health Organization (WHO). As a travel document, it is a kind of medical passport that is recognised internationally and may be required for entry to certain countries where there are increased health risks for travellers.

A vaccination policy is a health policy adopted in order to prevent the spread of infectious disease. These policies are generally put into place by state or local governments, but may also be set by private facilities, such as workplaces or schools. Many policies have been developed and implemented since vaccines were first made widely available.

Mass vaccination is a public policy effort to vaccinate a large number of people, possibly the entire population of the world or of a country or region, within a short period of time. This policy may be directed during a pandemic, when there is a localized outbreak or scare of a disease for which a vaccine exists, or when a new vaccine is invented.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Health in the United States</span> Overall health of the population of the United States

Health may refer to "a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease and infirmity.", according to the World Health Organization (WHO). 78.7 was the average life expectancy for individuals at birth in 2017. The highest cause of death for United States citizens is heart disease. Sexually transmitted infections impact the health of approximately 19 million yearly. The two most commonly reported infections include chlamydia and gonorrhea. The United States is currently challenged by the COVID-19 pandemic, and is 19th in the world in COVID-19 vaccination rates. All 50 states in the U.S. require immunizations for children in order to enroll in public school, but various exemptions are available by state. Immunizations are often compulsory for military enlistment in the United States.

Vaccinate Your Family (VYF), formerly known as Every Child By Two (ECBT), is a non-profit organization, based in the United States, which advocates for vaccinations. Founded in 1991, its stated goals are to "raise awareness of the critical need for timely immunizations and to foster a systematic way to immunize all of America's children by age two." ECBT was founded by former First Lady of the United States Rosalynn Carter and former First Lady of Arkansas Betty Bumpers. ECBT was renamed to Vaccinate Your Family in 2018.

Pakistan is one of the two remaining countries in the world where poliomyelitis (polio) is still categorized as an endemic viral infection, the other one being Afghanistan. While it has yet to fully eradicate Polio, there has been a downwards trend in the number of reported cases per year; the total count of wild poliovirus cases in Pakistan in 2019 was 147, compared to 84 in 2020, 1 in 2021, 20 in 2022, 6 in 2023 and 2 to date in 2024.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Epidemiology of measles</span>

Measles is extremely contagious, but surviving the infection results in lifelong immunity, so its continued circulation in a community depends on the generation of susceptible hosts by birth of children. In communities which generate insufficient new hosts the disease will die out. This concept was first recognized by Bartlett in 1957, who referred to the minimum number supporting measles as the critical community size (CCS). Analysis of outbreaks in island communities suggested that the CCS for measles is c. 250,000. Due to the development of vaccination against measles, the world has seen a 99% decrease in measles related cases compared cases before the vaccine was developed.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dorit Rubinstein Reiss</span> Academic specializing in vaccination policies

Dorit Rubinstein Reiss is a Professor of Law and the James Edgar Hervey '50 Chair of Litigation at UC Hastings College of Law. She has also worked for the Hebrew University of Jerusalem and the Israeli Ministry of Justice's Department of Public Law.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vaccination policy of the United States</span> Overview of the vaccination policy in the United States of America

Vaccination policy of the United States is the subset of U.S. federal health policy that deals with immunization against infectious disease. It is decided at various levels of the government, including the individual states. This policy has been developed over the approximately two centuries since the invention of vaccination with the purpose of eradicating disease from the U.S. population, or creating a herd immunity. Policies intended to encourage vaccination impact numerous areas of law, including regulation of vaccine safety, funding of vaccination programs, vaccine mandates, adverse event reporting requirements, and compensation for injuries asserted to be associated with vaccination.

The New Jersey Coalition for Vaccination Choice (NJCVC) is a state-level anti-vaccination group advocating against mandatory vaccination. Scientists and medical experts have countered many of these statements, arguments against vaccination being contradicted by overwhelming scientific consensus about the safety and efficacy of vaccines.

Misinformation related to immunization and the use of vaccines circulates in mass media and social media in spite of the fact that there is no serious hesitancy or debate within mainstream medical and scientific circles about the benefits of vaccination. Unsubstantiated safety concerns related to vaccines are often presented on the internet as being scientific information. A high proportion of internet sources on the topic are "inaccurate on the whole" which can lead people searching for information to form "significant misconceptions about vaccines".

<i>Immunization of School Pupils Act</i> Ontario, Canada statute

The Immunization of School Pupils Act (ISPA) is a law in Ontario, Canada, that requires children and adolescents under the age of 18 to receive certain vaccinations to attend primary and secondary school unless a valid exemption is provided, which includes medical, religious, and conscience exemptions. The law applies to both private and public schools. ISPA was adopted in 1990 and was last amended in 2017.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Anti-vaccine activism</span>

Anti-vaccine activism, also called the "anti-vax" movement, is organized activity designed to increase vaccine hesitancy, often by disseminating misinformation or disinformation. Although myths, conspiracy theories, misinformation and disinformation spread by the anti-vaccination movement and fringe doctors increases vaccine hesitancy and public debates around the medical, ethical, and legal issues related to vaccines, there is no serious hesitancy or debate within mainstream medical and scientific circles about the benefits of vaccination.

References

  1. ↑ McNeil, Donald G. Jr. (26 April 2019). "Religious Objections to the Measles Vaccine? Get the Shots, Faith Leaders Say". The New York Times. Retrieved 29 April 2019.
  2. ↑ "Parents Fake Religion To Avoid Vaccines". CBS News / AP. October 17, 2007.
  3. ↑ Medew, Julia (2015-01-28). "Anti-vaccination group encourages parents to join church". Sydney morning Herald.
  4. ↑ "Anti-vaccination group encourages parents to join fake church". Sydney Morning Herald. 2015-01-28. Retrieved April 16, 2015.
  5. ↑ Pastor offers to sign vaccine exemptions in exchange for becoming online member of his church, The Hill
  6. ↑ Blake, John B. "The Inoculation Controversy in Boston: 1721–1722." New England Quarterly, vol. 25, no. 4, New England Quarterly, Inc., 1952, pp. 489–506, doi : 10.2307/362582.
  7. ↑ H. Bazin (2000). The eradication of smallpox: Edward Jenner and the first and only eradication of a human infectious disease. Academic Press. pp. 75–. ISBN   978-0-12-083475-4.
  8. ↑ Ian Glynn; Jenifer Glynn (2004). The Life and Death of Smallpox . Cambridge University Press. pp.  112–. ISBN   978-0-521-84542-7.
  9. ↑ John Rhodes (2013). The End of Plagues: The Global Battle Against Infectious Disease. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 50–. ISBN   978-1-137-38131-6.
  10. ↑ David P. Mindell, The Evolving World: Evolution in Everyday Life (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2007 [2006]), p. 10
  11. ↑ Andrew Dickson White (1896). "Theological opposition to inoculation, vaccination, and the use of anæsthetics". A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom. Appleton. Retrieved 2007-08-17.
  12. ↑ Fisher, Lillian (November 1935). "Manuel Abad y Queipo, Bishop of Michoacan". The Hispanic American Historical Review. 15 (4): 428. doi:10.2307/2506454. JSTOR   2506454.
  13. ↑ Pétursson P (1983). Church and Social Change: A Study of the Secularization Process in Iceland, 1830–1930. Studies in religious experience and behaviour, nr. 4. Helsingborg, Sweden: Plus Ultra. pp. 70, 79. ISBN   91-970355-9-9.
  14. ↑ Durbach, Nadja. 2005. Bodily matters: the anti-vaccination movement in England, 1853–1907. Radical perspectives. Durham: Duke University Press. pp. 40–45.
  15. ↑ Bourdelais, Patrice. 2006. Epidemics laid low: a history of what happened in rich countries. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 25–26.
  16. ↑ Boyd RW (1999). "A final disaster: the 1862 smallpox epidemic in coastal British Columbia". The Coming of the Spirit of Pestilence: Introduced Infectious Diseases and Population Decline Among Northwest Coast Indians, 1774–1874. Seattle: University of Washington Press. pp. 172–201. ISBN   0-295-97837-6.
  17. ↑ Dorit Rubinstein Reiss, "Thou Shalt Not Take the Name of the Lord Thy God in Vain: Use and Abuse of Religious Exemptions from School Immunization Requirements", Hastings Law Journal, Vol. 65, Iss. 6 (2013), p. 1583.
  18. ↑ About the Jehovah's Witnesses Christian denomination –Past opposition to vaccinations, religioustolerance.org
  19. ↑ "Human papillomavirus (HPV) and cervical cancer". WHO. June 2016. Archived from the original on 5 August 2016.
  20. ↑ "The Link Between HPV and Cancer". CDC. September 30, 2015. Archived from the original on 9 November 2015. Retrieved 11 August 2016.
  21. ↑ "Pinkbook – HPV – Epidemiology of Vaccine Preventable Diseases – CDC". www.cdc.gov. 2019-09-25.
  22. ↑ Danny Fortson (2006-06-11). "Moral majority take on GSK and Merck over cancer drugs". The Independent. London. Retrieved 2006-11-02.
  23. ↑ Sprigg P (2006-07-15). "Pro-family, pro-vaccine – but keep it voluntary". Washington Post. Retrieved 2008-06-15.
  24. ↑ "HPV Vaccination Does Not Lead to Increased Sexual Activity". www.aap.org.
  25. ↑ White, Lesli. "Should Christians Get the COVID 19 Vaccine?". beliefnet.com.
  26. ↑ Wildes, Kevin. "Christian Morality and the COVID-19 Vaccine". berkleycenter.georgetown.edu. Berkley.
  27. ↑ Mynors G, Ghalamkari H, Beaumont S, Powell S, McGee P (2004). "Drugs of porcine origin and their clinical alternatives: an introductory guide" (PDF). National Prescribing Centre. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-09-11. Retrieved 2009-05-12.
  28. ↑ Gezairy HA (2001-07-17). "(Form letter EDB.7/3 P6/61/3)" (PDF). World Health Organization, Regional Office for the Eastern Mediterranean. Retrieved 2009-05-12.
  29. ↑ Hasanudin Aco (April 3, 2015). "80 Percent of Acehnese Consider Immunization Haram, This is the Reason".
  30. ↑ "Senior Church leaders receive COVID-19 vaccine, encourage members to safeguard themselves, others 'through immunization'". Church News. 2021-01-19. Retrieved 2021-03-05.
  31. ↑ The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. "Church Makes Immunizations an Official Initiative, Provides Social Mobilization" . Retrieved 2 August 2012.
  32. ↑ "Immunize Children, Leaders Urge", Liahona , July 1978 (accessed 2 August 2012).
  33. ↑ "See the March 2021 Update to the General Handbook". Newsroom. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. 31 March 2021. Retrieved 8 April 2021.
  34. ↑ "The Church Urges More Action to Limit the Spread of COVID-19". newsroom.churchofjesuschrist.org. 2021-08-12. Retrieved 2021-08-27.
  35. ↑ Schoepflin, Rennie B. (2003). Christian Science on Trial: Religious Healing in America. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 192–193
  36. ↑ Trammell, Mary M. (March 26, 2010). "Letter; What the Christian Science Church Teaches". The New York Times.
  37. ↑ Livio, Susan K (2014-11-19). "Nearly 9,000 N.J. school children skipped vaccinations on religious grounds last year" . Retrieved 2015-03-11.
  38. ↑ "Outbreak of Measles Among Christian Science Students – Missouri and Illinois, 1994" . Retrieved 2015-03-11.
  39. 1 2 "religious exemption removed".
  40. ↑ Congregation of Universal Wisdom, Congregation of Universal Wisdom, retrieved April 11, 2015
  41. ↑ Kellner, Mark (February 7, 2015), 'Religious' objections to vaccinations? There really aren't any, Deseret News, archived from the original on October 3, 2016, retrieved April 11, 2015
  42. ↑ McNeil, Jr., Donald (January 14, 2003), "Worship Optional: Joining a Church To Avoid Vaccines", New York Times , retrieved April 11, 2015
  43. ↑ Turner v. Liverpool Cent. School, 186 F. Supp.2d 187 (N.D.N.Y. 2002)
  44. ↑ Grabenstein JD (1999). "Moral considerations with certain viral vaccines" (PDF). Christ Pharm. 2 (2): 3–6. ISSN   1094-9534 . Retrieved 2009-05-11.[ dead link ]
  45. 1 2 Pontifical Academy for Life (2005). "Moral reflections on vaccines prepared from cells derived from aborted human foetuses". Medicina e Morale. Center for Bioethics, Catholic University of the Sacred Heart. Archived from the original on 2006-05-07. Retrieved 2008-12-03.
  46. ↑ "Statement on Vaccinations from the OU and Rabbinical Council of America". Orthodox Union. 2015-02-10. Retrieved 2017-03-14.
  47. ↑ Nathan-Kazis, Josh (2014-09-17). "Are Ultra-Orthodox Turning Away From Vaccination?". Forward. Retrieved 2017-03-14.
  48. ↑ "Muslim Clerics Finally Embrace Polio Campaign". NBC News . 2009-03-22. Retrieved 2015-03-11.
  49. ↑ Clements CJ, Greenough P, Shull D (2006). "How vaccine safety can become political – the example of polio in Nigeria" (PDF). Curr Drug Saf. 1 (1): 117–19. doi:10.2174/157488606775252575. PMID   18690921. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-09-28. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  50. ↑ "Wild poliovirus 2000–2008" (PDF). Global Polio Eradication Initiative. 2008-02-05. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-09-27. Retrieved 2008-02-11.
  51. ↑ "'Hundreds' dead in measles outbreak". IRIN. 2007-12-14. Archived from the original on 2012-02-08. Retrieved 2008-02-10.
  52. ↑ "Polio vaccinators killed in Nigeria". BBC News. 8 February 2013.
  53. ↑ "Nigeria marks one year without recorded polio case". BBC News. 2015-07-24.
  54. 1 2 3 "Nigeria marks polio-free year, raising global eradication hopes". Reuters. 2015-07-23.
  55. ↑ "Polio-Free Countries". Global Polio Eradication Initiative. Retrieved 2022-03-27.
  56. 1 2 Brumfiel, Geoff (2011-07-14). "Fake vaccination campaign raises real fears". Nature News. doi:10.1038/news.2011.418 . Retrieved 2017-03-14.
  57. ↑ Warraich HJ (2009). "Religious opposition to polio vaccination". Emerg Infect Dis. 15 (6): 978–78. doi:10.3201/eid1506.090087. PMC   2727330 . PMID   19523311.
  58. ↑ Shah, Saeed (2012-03-02). "CIA tactics to trap Bin Laden linked with polio crisis, say aid groups". The Guardian . Retrieved 2017-03-14.
  59. ↑ Boone, Jon (2012-05-23). "Doctor who helped US in search for Osama Bin Laden jailed for 33 years". The Guardian . Retrieved 2017-03-14.
  60. ↑ Carroll, James (2014-10-27). "Mistrust and polio in Pakistan". The Boston Globe . Retrieved 2017-03-14.
  61. ↑ Shah, Saeed (2011-07-11). "CIA organised fake vaccination drive to get Osama bin Laden's family DNA". The Guardian . Retrieved 2017-03-14.
  62. ↑ "Afghanistan polio: First case in Kabul since 2001". BBC News. 2014-02-11.
  63. ↑ "Nation Of Islam Leader Voices Opposition To Mandatory Vaccine Bill". CBS Los Angeles.
  64. ↑ Times, Los Angeles. "Nation of Islam opposes California vaccine mandate bill". Los Angeles Times .
  65. ↑ "Vaccine skepticism runs deep among white evangelicals in US". The Associated Press . 2021-04-05. Retrieved 2021-04-07.
  66. ↑ "New York Ends Religious Exemptions for School Vaccinations". The Wall Street Journal .
  67. ↑ Lee, Michael S.W.; Male, Mike (2011). "Against medical advice: the anti-consumption of vaccines". Journal of Consumer Marketing. 28 (7). The University of Auckland Business School, Auckland, New Zealand: 484–490. doi:10.1108/07363761111181464.
  68. ↑ LeBlanc S (2007-10-17). "Parents use religion to avoid vaccines". USA Today. AP . Retrieved 2007-11-24.
  69. ↑ American Medical Association (2009). "Health and Ethics Policies of the AMA House of Delegates" (PDF). pp. 460–61. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-03-20. Retrieved 2009-05-13. H-440.970 Religious Exemptions from Immunizations
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.