Inactivated vaccine

Last updated
Inactivated vaccine
Soldiers receiving typhoid vaccinations (Reeve 036335), National Museum of Health and Medicine (5243638771).jpg
Typhoid prophylaxis for soldiers in World War I.
Other namesKilled vaccine Non-replicating vaccines
Specialty Public health, immunology, family medicine, general practice
Usesprevention of infectious diseases
Frequencybirth to adulthood
See also: Vaccination schedule and Vaccination policy § By country
Outcomesdevelopment of active immunity in individuals; contribution to herd immunity

An inactivated vaccine (or killed vaccine) is a type of vaccine that contains pathogens (such as virus or bacteria) that have been killed or rendered inactive, so they cannot replicate or cause disease. In contrast, live vaccines use pathogens that are still alive (but are almost always attenuated, that is, weakened). Pathogens for inactivated vaccines are grown under controlled conditions and are killed as a means to reduce infectivity and thus prevent infection from the vaccine. [1]

Contents

Inactivated vaccines were first developed in the late 1800s and early 1900s for cholera, plague, and typhoid. [2] In 1897, Japanese scientists developed an inactivated vaccine for the bubonic plague. In the 1950's, Jonas Salk created an inactivated vaccine for the poliovirus, creating the first vaccine that was both safe and effective against polio. Today, inactivated vaccines exist for many pathogens, including influenza, polio (IPV), rabies, hepatitis A, CoronaVac, Covaxin and pertussis. [3] [4]

Because inactivated pathogens tend to produce a weaker response by the immune system than live pathogens, immunologic adjuvants and multiple "booster" injections may be required in some vaccines to provide an effective immune response against the pathogen. [1] [5] [6] Attenuated vaccines are often preferable for generally healthy people because a single dose is often safe and very effective. However, some people cannot take attenuated vaccines because the pathogen poses too much risk for them (for example, elderly people or people with immunodeficiency). For those patients, an inactivated vaccine can provide protection.[ citation needed ]

Mechanism

The pathogen particles are destroyed and cannot divide, but the pathogens maintain some of their integrity to be recognized by the immune system and evoke an adaptive immune response. [7] [8] When manufactured correctly, the vaccine is not infectious, but improper inactivation can result in intact and infectious particles.[ citation needed ]

When a vaccine is administered, the antigen will be taken up by an antigen-presenting cell (APC) and transported to a draining lymph node in vaccinated people. The APC will place a piece of the antigen, an epitope, on its surface along with a major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecule. It can now interact with and activate T cells. The resulting helper T cells will then stimulate an antibody-mediated or cell-mediated immune response and develop an antigen-specific adaptive response. [9] [10] This process creates an immunological memory against the specific pathogen and allows the immune system to respond more effectively and rapidly after subsequent encounters with that pathogen. [7] [9] [10]

Inactivated vaccines tend to produce an immune response that is primarily antibody-mediated. [3] [11] However, deliberate adjuvant selection allows inactivated vaccines to stimulate a more robust cell-mediated immune response. [1] [8]

Social Consequences

The use of inactivated vaccines helped reduce morbidity and mortality from diseases like tetanus, diphtheria, and pertussis, creating a healthier, more stable society. Community health improved as a result, particularly in developed nations, where high vaccination rates led to herd immunity. [12]

Reducing diseases like polio, hepatitis A, and influenza meant fewer people suffering from debilitating illness, which in turn led to increased social productivity. Families no longer had to care for loved ones with debilitating diseases, and children could go to school without the constant fear of contraction. Inactivated vaccines increased public trust in public health systems, normalizing vaccinations to the point where yearly flu shots and childhood immunization are seen as routine parts of life, especially in developed countries. [12]

Types

Inactivated vaccines can be divided by the method used for killing the pathogen. [5] [1]

A minority of sources use the term inactivated vaccines to broadly refer to non-live vaccines. Under this definition, inactivated vaccines also include subunit vaccines and toxoid vaccines. [3] [9]

Examples

Types include: [17]

Advantages and disadvantages

Advantages

Disadvantages

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vaccine</span> Pathogen-derived preparation that provides acquired immunity to an infectious disease

A vaccine is a biological preparation that provides active acquired immunity to a particular infectious or malignant disease. The safety and effectiveness of vaccines has been widely studied and verified. A vaccine typically contains an agent that resembles a disease-causing microorganism and is often made from weakened or killed forms of the microbe, its toxins, or one of its surface proteins. The agent stimulates the body's immune system to recognize the agent as a threat, destroy it, and recognize further and destroy any of the microorganisms associated with that agent that it may encounter in the future.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">DNA vaccine</span> Vaccine containing DNA

A DNA vaccine is a type of vaccine that transfects a specific antigen-coding DNA sequence into the cells of an organism as a mechanism to induce an immune response.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Immunization</span> Process by which an individuals immune system becomes fortified against an infectious agent

Immunization, or immunisation, is the process by which an individual's immune system becomes fortified against an infectious agent.

In biology, immunity is the state of being insusceptible or resistant to a noxious agent or process, especially a pathogen or infectious disease. Immunity may occur naturally or be produced by prior exposure or immunization.

ATC code J07Vaccines is a therapeutic subgroup of the Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System, a system of alphanumeric codes developed by the World Health Organization (WHO) for the classification of drugs and other medical products. Subgroup J07 is part of the anatomical group J Antiinfectives for systemic use.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">DPT vaccine</span> Combination vaccine

The DPT vaccine or DTP vaccine is a class of combination vaccines to protect against three infectious diseases in humans: diphtheria, pertussis, and tetanus (lockjaw). The vaccine components include diphtheria and tetanus toxoids, and either killed whole cells of the bacterium that causes pertussis or pertussis antigens. The term toxoid refers to vaccines which use an inactivated toxin produced by the pathogen which they are targeted against to generate an immune response. In this way, the toxoid vaccine generates an immune response which is targeted against the toxin which is produced by the pathogen and causes disease, rather than a vaccine which is targeted against the pathogen itself. The whole cells or antigens will be depicted as either "DTwP" or "DTaP", where the lower-case "w" indicates whole-cell inactivated pertussis and the lower-case "a" stands for "acellular". In comparison to alternative vaccine types, such as live attenuated vaccines, the DTP vaccine does not contain any live pathogen, but rather uses inactivated toxoid to generate an immune response; therefore, there is not a risk of use in populations that are immune compromised since there is not any known risk of causing the disease itself. As a result, the DTP vaccine is considered a safe vaccine to use in anyone and it generates a much more targeted immune response specific for the pathogen of interest.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Original antigenic sin</span> Immune phenomenon

Original antigenic sin, also known as antigenic imprinting, the Hoskins effect, immunological imprinting, or primary addiction is the propensity of the immune system to preferentially use immunological memory based on a previous infection when a second slightly different version of that foreign pathogen is encountered. This leaves the immune system "trapped" by the first response it has made to each antigen, and unable to mount potentially more effective responses during subsequent infections. Antibodies or T-cells induced during infections with the first variant of the pathogen are subject to repertoire freeze, a form of original antigenic sin.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Booster dose</span> Additional administration of vaccine

A booster dose is an extra administration of a vaccine after an earlier (primer) dose. After initial immunization, a booster provides a re-exposure to the immunizing antigen. It is intended to increase immunity against that antigen back to protective levels after memory against that antigen has declined through time. For example, tetanus shot boosters are often recommended every 10 years, by which point memory cells specific against tetanus lose their function or undergo apoptosis.

A breakthrough infection is a case of illness in which a vaccinated individual becomes infected with the illness, because the vaccine has failed to provide complete immunity against the pathogen. Breakthrough infections have been identified in individuals immunized against a variety of diseases including mumps, varicella (Chickenpox), influenza, and COVID-19. The characteristics of the breakthrough infection are dependent on the virus itself. Often, infection of the vaccinated individual results in milder symptoms and shorter duration than if the infection were contracted naturally.

In immunology, an adjuvant is a substance that increases or modulates the immune response to a vaccine. The word "adjuvant" comes from the Latin word adiuvare, meaning to help or aid. "An immunologic adjuvant is defined as any substance that acts to accelerate, prolong, or enhance antigen-specific immune responses when used in combination with specific vaccine antigens."

An attenuated vaccine is a vaccine created by reducing the virulence of a pathogen, but still keeping it viable. Attenuation takes an infectious agent and alters it so that it becomes harmless or less virulent. These vaccines contrast to those produced by "killing" the pathogen.

Immune stimulating complexes (ISCOMs) are spherical open cage-like structures (typically 40 nm in diameter) that are spontaneously formed when mixing together cholesterol, phospholipids and Quillaja saponins under a specific stoichiometry. The complex displays immune stimulating properties and is thus mainly used as a vaccine adjuvant in order to induce a stronger immune response and longer protection. A specific adjuvant based on ISCOM technology is Matrix-M.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pertussis vaccine</span> Vaccine protecting against whooping cough

Pertussis vaccine is a vaccine that protects against whooping cough (pertussis). There are two main types: whole-cell vaccines and acellular vaccines. The whole-cell vaccine is about 78% effective while the acellular vaccine is 71–85% effective. The effectiveness of the vaccines appears to decrease by between 2 and 10% per year after vaccination with a more rapid decrease with the acellular vaccines. The vaccine is only available in combination with tetanus and diphtheria vaccines. Pertussis vaccine is estimated to have saved over 500,000 lives in 2002.

A subunit vaccine is a vaccine that contains purified parts of the pathogen that are antigenic, or necessary to elicit a protective immune response. Subunit vaccine can be made from dissembled viral particles in cell culture or recombinant DNA expression, in which case it is a recombinant subunit vaccine.

Peptide-based synthetic vaccines are subunit vaccines made from peptides. The peptides mimic the epitopes of the antigen that triggers direct or potent immune responses. Peptide vaccines can not only induce protection against infectious pathogens and non-infectious diseases but also be utilized as therapeutic cancer vaccines, where peptides from tumor-associated antigens are used to induce an effective anti-tumor T-cell response.

Nasal- or nasopharynx- associated lymphoid tissue (NALT) represents immune system of nasal mucosa and is a part of mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) in mammals. It protects body from airborne viruses and other infectious agents. In humans, NALT is considered analogous to Waldeyer's ring.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vaccine ingredients</span> Ingredients used in a vaccine dose

A vaccine dose may contain many ingredients very little of which is the active ingredient, the immunogen. A single dose may have merely nanograms of virus particles, or micrograms of bacterial polysaccharides. A vaccine injection, oral drops or nasal spray is mostly water. Other ingredients are added to boost the immune response, to ensure safety or help with storage, and a tiny amount of material is left-over from the manufacturing process. Very rarely, these materials can cause an allergic reaction in people who are very sensitive to them.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Viral vector vaccine</span> Type of vaccine

A viral vector vaccine is a vaccine that uses a viral vector to deliver genetic material (DNA) that can be transcribed by the recipient's host cells as mRNA coding for a desired protein, or antigen, to elicit an immune response. As of April 2021, six viral vector vaccines, four COVID-19 vaccines and two Ebola vaccines, have been authorized for use in humans.

Vaccine resistance is the evolutionary adaptation of pathogens to infect and spread through vaccinated individuals, analogous to antimicrobial resistance. It concerns both human and animal vaccines. Although the emergence of a number of vaccine resistant pathogens has been well documented, this phenomenon is nevertheless much more rare and less of a concern than antimicrobial resistance.

Whole-cell vaccines are a type of vaccine that has been prepared in the laboratory from entire cells. Such vaccines simultaneously contain multiple antigens to activate the immune system. They induce antigen-specific T-cell responses.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 Petrovsky N, Aguilar JC (October 2004). "Vaccine adjuvants: current state and future trends". Immunology and Cell Biology. 82 (5): 488–496. doi:10.1111/j.0818-9641.2004.01272.x. PMID   15479434. S2CID   154670.
  2. ↑ Plotkin SA, Plotkin SL (October 2011). "The development of vaccines: how the past led to the future". Nature Reviews. Microbiology. 9 (12) (published 2011-10-03): 889–893. doi: 10.1038/nrmicro2668 . PMID   21963800. S2CID   32506969.
  3. 1 2 3 4 Wodi AP, Morelli V (2021). "Chapter 1: Principles of Vaccination" (PDF). In Hall E, Wodi AP, Hamborsky J, Morelli V, Schilllie S (eds.). Epidemiology and Prevention of Vaccine-Preventable Diseases (14th ed.). Washington, D.C.: Public Health Foundation, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
  4. ↑ Brown, Jonathan (1997). The History of Medicine: A Scandalously Short Introduction (1st ed.). W.W. Norton & Company. pp. 1–530. ISBN   978-0-393-31611-7.
  5. 1 2 3 WHO Expert Committee on Biological Standardization (19 June 2019). "Influenza". World Health Organization (WHO). Retrieved 22 October 2021.
  6. 1 2 "Types of Vaccines". Vaccines.gov. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 23 July 2013. Archived from the original on 9 June 2013. Retrieved 16 May 2016.
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Vetter V, Denizer G, Friedland LR, Krishnan J, Shapiro M (March 2018). "Understanding modern-day vaccines: what you need to know". Annals of Medicine. 50 (2): 110–120. doi: 10.1080/07853890.2017.1407035 . PMID   29172780. S2CID   25514266.
  8. 1 2 3 Slifka MK, Amanna I (May 2014). "How advances in immunology provide insight into improving vaccine efficacy". Vaccine. 32 (25): 2948–2957. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2014.03.078. PMC   4096845 . PMID   24709587.
  9. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Pollard AJ, Bijker EM (February 2021). "A guide to vaccinology: from basic principles to new developments". Nature Reviews. Immunology. 21 (2): 83–100. doi:10.1038/s41577-020-00479-7. PMC   7754704 . PMID   33353987.
  10. 1 2 3 4 Karch CP, Burkhard P (November 2016). "Vaccine technologies: From whole organisms to rationally designed protein assemblies". Biochemical Pharmacology. 120: 1–14. doi:10.1016/j.bcp.2016.05.001. PMC   5079805 . PMID   27157411.
  11. 1 2 3 Pecetta, Simone; Ahmed, S. Sohail; Ellis, Ronald; Rappuoli, Rino (2023). "Technologies for Making New Vaccines". Plotkin's Vaccines. pp. 1350–1373.e9. doi:10.1016/B978-0-323-79058-1.00067-0. ISBN   978-0-323-79058-1.
  12. 1 2 Oshinsky, David M. (2005). Polio: An American Story. Oxford University Press. ISBN   978-0-19-515294-4.[ page needed ]
  13. ↑ Sanders B, Koldijk M, Schuitemaker H (2015). "Inactivated Viral Vaccines". Vaccine Analysis: Strategies, Principles, and Control. pp. 45–80. doi:10.1007/978-3-662-45024-6_2. ISBN   978-3-662-45023-9. PMC   7189890 . S2CID   81212732.
  14. ↑ Hotez, Peter J.; Bottazzi, Maria Elena (27 January 2022). "Whole Inactivated Virus and Protein-Based COVID-19 Vaccines". Annual Review of Medicine. 73 (1): 55–64. doi: 10.1146/annurev-med-042420-113212 . ISSN   0066-4219. PMID   34637324. S2CID   238747462.
  15. ↑ Chen J, Wang J, Zhang J, Ly H (2021). "Advances in Development and Application of Influenza Vaccines". Frontiers in Immunology. 12: 711997. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.711997 . PMC   8313855 . PMID   34326849.
  16. ↑ Gemmill I, Young K, et al. (National Advisory Committee on Immunization (NACI)) (May 2018). "Summary of the NACI literature review on the comparative effectiveness and immunogenicity of subunit and split virus inactivated influenza vaccines in older adults". Can Commun Dis Rep (CCDR). 44 (6): 129–133. doi:10.14745/ccdr.v44i06a02.
  17. ↑ Ghaffar A, Haqqi T. "Immunization". Immunology. The Board of Trustees of the University of South Carolina. Archived from the original on 26 February 2014. Retrieved 2009-03-10.
  18. 1 2 Clem AS (January 2011). "Fundamentals of vaccine immunology". Journal of Global Infectious Diseases. 3 (1): 73–78. doi: 10.4103/0974-777X.77299 . PMC   3068582 . PMID   21572612.
  19. ↑ "Inactivated whole-cell (killed antigen) vaccines - WHO Vaccine Safety Basics". vaccine-safety-training.org. World Health Organization (WHO). Retrieved 2021-11-11.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.