Diphtheria

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Diphtheria
Dirty white pseudomembrane classically seen in diphtheria 2013-07-06 11-07.jpg
An adherent, dense, grey pseudomembrane covering the tonsils is classically seen in diphtheria.
Specialty Infectious disease
Symptoms Sore throat, fever, barking cough [1]
Complications Myocarditis, Peripheral neuropathy, Proteinuria
Usual onset2–5 days post-exposure [2]
Causes Corynebacterium diphtheriae (spread by direct contact and through the air) [2]
Diagnostic method Examination of throat, culture [1]
Prevention Diphtheria vaccine [2]
Treatment Antibiotics, tracheostomy [2]
Prognosis 5–10% risk of death
Frequency4,500 (reported 2015) [3]
Deaths2,100 (2015) [4]

Diphtheria is an infection caused by the bacterium Corynebacterium diphtheriae . [2] Most infections are asymptomatic or have a mild clinical course, but in some outbreaks, the mortality rate approaches 10%. [1] Signs and symptoms may vary from mild to severe, [1] and usually start two to five days after exposure. [2] Symptoms often develop gradually, beginning with a sore throat and fever. [1] In severe cases, a grey or white patch develops in the throat called a pseudomembrane. [2] [1] This tough, leathery membrane slowly blocks the airway. Starting with a barking cough similar to what is observed in croup [1] , the neck may also swell, in part due to the enlargement of the facial lymph nodes. [2] The pseudomembrane can grow to cover a wide area of the throat leading to strangulation and death. Diphtheria can also involve the skin, eyes, or genitals, and can cause [2] [1] complications, including myocarditis (which in itself can result in an abnormal heart rate), inflammation of nerves (which can result in paralysis), kidney problems, and bleeding problems due to low levels of platelets. [2]

Contents

Diphtheria is usually spread between people by direct contact, through the air, or through contact with contaminated objects. [2] [5] Asymptomatic transmission and chronic infection are also possible. [2] Different strains of C. diphtheriae are the main cause in the variability of lethality, [2] as the lethality and symptoms themselves are caused by the exotoxin produced by the bacteria. [1] Diagnosis can often be made based on the appearance of the throat with confirmation by microbiological culture. [1] Previous infection may not protect against reinfection. [1]

A diphtheria vaccine is effective for prevention, and is available in a number of formulations. [2] Three or four doses, given along with tetanus vaccine and pertussis vaccine, are recommended during childhood. [2] Further doses of the diphtheria–tetanus vaccine are recommended every ten years. [2] Protection can be verified by measuring the antitoxin level in the blood. [2] Diphtheria can be prevented in those exposed, as well as treated with the antibiotics erythromycin or benzylpenicillin. [2] In severe cases a tracheotomy may be needed to open the airway. [1]

In 2015, 4,500 cases were officially reported worldwide, down from nearly 100,000 in 1980. [3] About a million cases a year are believed to have occurred before the 1980s. [1] Diphtheria currently occurs most often in sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, and Indonesia. [1] [6] In 2015, it resulted in 2,100 deaths, down from 8,000 deaths in 1990. [4] [7] In areas where it is still common, children are most affected. [1] It is rare in the developed world due to widespread vaccination, but can re-emerge if vaccination rates decrease. [1] [8] In the United States, 57 cases were reported between 1980 and 2004. [2] Death occurs in 5–10% of those diagnosed. [2] The disease was first described in the 5th century BC by Hippocrates. [2] The bacterium was identified in 1882 by Edwin Klebs. [2]

Signs and symptoms

Diphtheria can cause a swollen neck, sometimes referred to as a bull neck. Diphtheria bull neck.5325 lores.jpg
Diphtheria can cause a swollen neck, sometimes referred to as a bull neck.
A diphtheria skin lesion on the leg A diphtheria skin lesion on the leg. PHIL 1941 lores.jpg
A diphtheria skin lesion on the leg

The symptoms of diphtheria usually begin two to seven days after infection. They include fever of 38 °C (100.4 °F) or above; chills; fatigue; bluish skin coloration (cyanosis); sore throat; hoarseness; cough; headache; difficulty swallowing; painful swallowing; difficulty breathing; rapid breathing; foul-smelling and bloodstained nasal discharge; and lymphadenopathy. [9] [10] Within two to three days, diphtheria may destroy healthy tissues in the respiratory system. The dead tissue forms a thick, gray coating, known as a pseudomembrane, that can build up in the throat or nose. It can cover tissues in the nose, tonsils, voice box, and throat, making it very hard to breathe and swallow. [11] Symptoms can also include cardiac arrhythmias, myocarditis, and cranial and peripheral nerve palsies. [12]

Diphtheritic croup

Laryngeal diphtheria can lead to a characteristic swollen neck and throat, or "bull neck". The swollen throat is often accompanied by a serious respiratory condition, characterized by a brassy or "barking" cough, stridor, hoarseness, and difficulty breathing; and historically referred to variously as "diphtheritic croup", [13] "true croup", [14] [15] or sometimes simply as "croup". [16] Diphtheritic croup is extremely rare in countries where diphtheria vaccination is customary. As a result, the term "croup" nowadays most often refers to an unrelated viral illness that produces similar but milder respiratory symptoms. [17]

Transmission

Human-to-human transmission of diphtheria typically occurs through the air when an infected individual coughs or sneezes. Breathing in particles released from the infected individual leads to infection. [18] Contact with any lesions on the skin can also lead to transmission of diphtheria, but this cause is uncommon. [19] Indirect infections can occur, as well. If an infected individual touches a surface or object, the bacteria can be left behind and remain viable. Also, some evidence indicates diphtheria has the potential to be zoonotic, but this has yet to be confirmed. Corynebacterium ulcerans has been found in some animals, which would suggest zoonotic potential. [20]

Mechanism

Diphtheria toxin (DT) is produced only by C. diphtheriae infected with a certain type of bacteriophage. [21] [22] Toxinogenicity is determined by phage conversion (also called lysogenic conversion); i.e., the ability of the bacterium to make DT changes as a consequence of infection by a particular phage. DT is encoded by the tox gene. Strains of corynephage are either tox+ (e.g., corynephage β) or tox− (e.g., corynephage γ). The tox gene becomes integrated into the bacterial genome. [23] The chromosome of C. diphtheriae has two different but functionally equivalent bacterial attachment sites (attB) for integration of β prophage into the chromosome.

The diphtheria toxin precursor is a protein of molecular weight 60  kDa. Certain proteases, such as trypsin, selectively cleave DT to generate two peptide chains, amino-terminal fragment A (DT-A) and carboxyl-terminal fragment B (DT-B), which are held together by a disulfide bond. [23] DT-B is a recognition subunit that gains entry of DT into the host cell by binding to the EGF-like domain of heparin-binding EGF-like growth factor on the cell surface. This signals the cell to internalize the toxin within an endosome via receptor-mediated endocytosis. Inside the endosome, DT is split by a trypsin-like protease into DT-A and DT-B. The acidity of the endosome causes DT-B to create pores in the endosome membrane, thereby catalysing the release of DT-A into the cytoplasm. [23]

Fragment A inhibits the synthesis of new proteins in the affected cell by catalyzing ADP-ribosylation of elongation factor EF-2—a protein that is essential to the translation step of protein synthesis. This ADP-ribosylation involves the transfer of an ADP-ribose from NAD+ to a diphthamide (a modified histidine) residue within the EF-2 protein. Since EF-2 is needed for the moving of tRNA from the A-site to the P-site of the ribosome during protein translation, ADP-ribosylation of EF-2 prevents protein synthesis. [24]

ADP-ribosylation of EF-2 is reversed by giving high doses of nicotinamide (a form of vitamin B3), since this is one of the reaction's end products, and high amounts drive the reaction in the opposite direction. [25]

Diagnosis

The current clinical case definition of diphtheria used by the United States' Centers for Disease Control and Prevention is based on both laboratory and clinical criteria.

Laboratory criteria

Toxin demonstration

Clinical criteria

Case classification

Empirical treatment should generally be started in a patient in whom suspicion of diphtheria is high.

Prevention

Diphtheria prevention poster from the UK (around 1939-1945) Diphtheria is Deadly Art.IWMPST14182.jpg
Diphtheria prevention poster from the UK (around 1939–1945)

Diphtheria prevention relies primarily on vaccination with the diphtheria toxoid, an inactivated form of the toxin produced by Corynebacterium diphtheriae. Introduced in the 1920s and widely adopted after World War II, the toxoid vaccine triggers strong antitoxin immunity that prevents the severe respiratory and systemic effects of the disease. Today it is administered as part of combination vaccines such as DTaP (for children) and Tdap or Td (for adolescents and adults), with booster doses recommended every 10 years to maintain protection. Widespread immunization has reduced diphtheria from a common childhood killer to a rare disease in most countries, though cases can still occur in areas with low vaccination coverage. [26]

Pentavalent vaccines, which vaccinate against diphtheria and four other childhood diseases simultaneously (Diphtheria, Tetanus, Pertussis (whooping cough), Hepatitis B, and Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib)), are frequently used in disease prevention programs in developing countries by organizations such as UNICEF. [27]

Treatment

The disease may remain manageable, but in more severe cases, lymph nodes in the neck may swell, and breathing and swallowing are more difficult. People in this stage should seek immediate medical attention, as obstruction in the throat may require intubation or a tracheotomy. Abnormal cardiac rhythms can occur early in the course of the illness or weeks later, and can lead to heart failure. Diphtheria can also cause paralysis in the eye, neck, throat, or respiratory muscles. Patients with severe cases are put in a hospital intensive care unit, and given diphtheria antitoxin (consisting of antibodies isolated from the serum of horses that have been challenged with diphtheria toxin). [28] Since antitoxin does not neutralize toxin that is already bound to tissues, delaying its administration increases risk of death. Therefore, the decision to administer diphtheria antitoxin is based on clinical diagnosis, and should not await laboratory confirmation. [29]

Antibiotics have not been demonstrated to affect healing of local infection in diphtheria patients treated with antitoxin. Antibiotics are used in patients or carriers to eradicate C. diphtheriae, and prevent its transmission to others. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommends [30] either:

In cases that progress beyond a throat infection, diphtheria toxin spreads through the blood, and can lead to potentially life-threatening complications that affect other organs, such as the heart and kidneys. Damage to the heart caused by the toxin affects the heart's ability to pump blood, or the kidneys' ability to clear wastes. It can also cause nerve damage, eventually leading to paralysis. About 40–50% of those left untreated can die. [31]

Epidemiology

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Disability-adjusted life year for diphtheria per 100,000 inhabitants in 2004:
  no data
  ≤ 1
  1–2
  2–3
  3–4
  4–5
  5–6
  6–7
  7–9
  9–10
  10–15
  15–50
  ≥ 50
Diphtheria cases reported to the World Health Organization between 1997 and 2006: no data 1-49 reported cases Between 50-99 reported cases Over 100 reported cases Diphtheria Cases - 1997 - 2006.svg
Diphtheria cases reported to the World Health Organization between 1997 and 2006:
  no data
  1–49 reported cases
  Between 50–99 reported cases
  Over 100 reported cases

Diphtheria is fatal in 5–10% of cases. In children under five years and adults over 40 years, the fatality rate may be as much as 20%. [29] In 2013, it resulted in 3,300 deaths, down from 8,000 deaths in 1990. [7] Better standards of living, mass immunization, improved diagnosis, prompt treatment, and more effective health care have led to a decrease in cases worldwide. [32]

History

Discovery and Science

Records of Diptheria begin as early as the 5th century BCE in the writings of Hippocrates. Epidemics were first described by Aëtius of Amidia in the 6th century. [2]

Before 1826, diphtheria was known by different names across the world. In England, it was known as "Boulogne sore throat," as the illness had spread from France. In 1826, Pierre Bretonneau gave the disease the name diphthérite (from Greek διφθέρα, diphthera 'leather'), describing the appearance of pseudomembrane in the throat. [33] [34]

In 1883, Edwin Klebs identified the bacterium causing diphtheria, [35] and named it Klebs–Loeffler bacterium. The club shape of this bacterium helped Edwin to differentiate it from other bacteria. Over time, it has been called Microsporon diphtheriticum, Bacillus diphtheriae, and Mycobacterium diphtheriae. Current nomenclature is Corynebacterium diphtheriae. [36]

In 1884, German bacteriologist Friedrich Loeffler became the first person known to cultivate C. diphtheriae. [37] Löffler found that the bacteria was always present in the mucous membranes of the larynx and trachea of patients with diphtheria. In the process of finding the bacteria he isolated the organism, cultured it, and reproduced the disease in susceptible animals (guinea pigs and rabbits), and then recovered the same bacillus from the diseased animal, thus fulfilling Koch's postulates. He believed there was a toxin that was made by the bacteria that caused the disease symptons and subsequently showed that some animals are immune to diphtheria. [38]

A diphtheria immunisation scheme in London (1941) Diphtheria Immunisation Scheme, London, England, 1941 D3184.jpg
A diphtheria immunisation scheme in London (1941)

In 1885, Joseph P. O'Dwyer introduced the O'Dwyer tube for laryngeal intubation in patients with an obstructed larynx. It soon replaced tracheostomy as the emergency diphtheric intubation method. [39]

In 1888, Emile Roux and Alexandre Yersin showed that a substance (exotoxin) produced by C. diphtheriae caused symptoms of diphtheria in animals. [40] [41]

In 1890, Shibasaburō Kitasato and Emil von Behring immunized guinea pigs with heat-treated diphtheria toxin. [42] They also immunized goats and horses in the same way, and showed that an "antitoxin" made from serum of immunized animals could cure the disease in non-immunized animals. Behring used this antitoxin (now known to consist of antibodies that neutralize the toxin produced by C. diphtheriae) for human trials in 1891, but they were unsuccessful. Successful treatment of human patients with horse-derived antitoxin began in 1894, after production and quantification of antitoxin had been optimized. [43] [28] In 1901, Von Behring won the first Nobel Prize in medicine for his work on diphtheria. [44]

In 1895, H. K. Mulford Company of Philadelphia started production and testing of diphtheria antitoxin in the United States. [45] Park and Biggs described the method for producing serum from horses for use in diphtheria treatment.[ citation needed ]

In 1897, Paul Ehrlich developed a standardized unit of measure for diphtheria antitoxin. This was the first ever standardization of a biological product, and played an important role in future developmental work on sera and vaccines. [46]

In 1901, 10 of 11 inoculated St. Louis children died from contaminated diphtheria antitoxin. The horse from which the antitoxin was derived died of tetanus. This incident, coupled with a tetanus outbreak in Camden, New Jersey, [47] played an important part in initiating federal regulation of biologic products. [48]

In 1905, Franklin Royer, from Philadelphia's Municipal Hospital, published a paper urging timely treatment for diphtheria and adequate doses of antitoxin. [49]

In 1906, Clemens Pirquet and Béla Schick described serum sickness in children receiving large quantities of horse-derived antitoxin. Chick and Pirquet reported that children treated for diphtheria with very large doses of horse-derived antitoxin frequently developed delayed symptoms including swelling, fever, rash, and joint pain. It is now understood that these reactions occur because the human immune system recognizes the foreign antibodies in horse serum as antigens, triggering a cascade of immune responses. In the clinical experience of Pirquet and Schick, these reactions were self-limited rather than life-threatening, and children who survived diphtheria were not permanently harmed by the antitoxin treatment. [50]

Between 1910 and 1911, Béla Schick developed the Schick test to detect pre-existing immunity to diphtheria in an exposed person. Only those who had not been exposed to diphtheria were vaccinated. A massive, five-year campaign was coordinated by Dr. Schick. As a part of the campaign, 85 million pieces of literature were distributed by the Metropolitan Life Insurance Company, with an appeal to parents to "Save your child from diphtheria." [51]

In 1914, William H. Park investigated the use of carefully calibrated mixtures of diphtheria toxin and antitoxin to induce active immunity in experimental animals and later humans. Building on earlier antitoxin work, he systematically adjusted the relative concentrations to identify formulations that produced durable protective immunity while minimizing adverse reactions to the toxin–antitoxin complex. This mixture, TAT (for toxin-antitoxin), became the first vaccine against diptheria. [52]

In 1919, in Dallas, Texas, 10 children were killed and 60 others made seriously ill by toxic antitoxin which had passed the tests of the New York State Health Department. The manufacturer of the antitoxin, the Mulford Company of Philadelphia, paid damages in every case. [53]

In 1926, Alexander Thomas Glenny increased the effectiveness of diphtheria toxoid (a modified version of the toxin used for vaccination) by treating it with aluminum salts. [54] Vaccination with toxoid was not widely used until the early 1930s. [55] In 1939, Dr. Nora Wattie, who was the Principal Medical Officer (Maternity and Child Welfare) of Glasgow between 1934– 1964, [56] introduced immunisation clinics across Glasgow, and promoted mother and child health education, resulting in virtual eradication of the infection in the city. [57]

Widespread vaccination pushed cases in the United States down from 4.4 per 100,000 inhabitants in 1932 to 2.0 in 1937. In Nazi Germany, where authorities preferred treatment and isolation over vaccination (until about 1939–1941), cases rose over the same period from 6.1 to 9.6 per 100,000 inhabitants. [58]

List of Epidemics

Notable Deaths

In 1863, Eliza Arabella Garfield, the daughter of James A. Garfield died from diphtheria at the age of three, right before Christmas. [86]

In 1878, Princess Alice (Queen Victoria's second daughter) and her family became infected with diphtheria; Princess Alice and her four-year-old daughter, Princess Marie, both died. Their deaths caused the Sanitary Journal to warn readers of the “kiss of death” that may have spread the disease through the royal family. [87]

On 7 January 1904, Ruth Cleveland died of diphtheria at the age of 12 years in Princeton, New Jersey. Ruth was the eldest daughter of former President Grover Cleveland and the former First Lady, Frances Folsom. [88]

References

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    A condensed version of this work is available in: P. Bretonneau (1826) "Extrait du traité de la diphthérite, angine maligne, ou croup épidémique" (Extract from the treatise on diphtheria, malignant throat infection, or epidemic croup), Archives générales de médecine, series 1, 11: 219–254. From p. 230: " … M. Bretonneau a cru convenable de l'appeler diphthérite, dérivé de ΔΙΦθΕΡΑ, … " ( … Mr. Bretonneau thought it appropriate to call it diphtheria, derived from ΔΙΦθΕΡΑ [diphthera], … )
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