Religion in Kazakhstan

Last updated

Religion in Kazakhstan (2021 Census) [1]

   Islam (69.3%)
   Christianity (17.2%)
   Atheism (2.3%)
  Undeclared (11%)
  Other Religions (0.2%)

According to various polls, the majority of Kazakhstan's citizens, primarily ethnic Kazakhs, identify as Sunni Muslims. [2] [3]

Contents

According to the estimate by the Pew Research Center, 71% of the population practices the religion of Islam. It also estimated that 17% practices Christianity, 10% are unaffiliated, and 0.9% of the population practices other religions, mainly Buddhism and Folk Religion. [4]

There are a total of 3,000 mosques, [5] all of them affiliated with the "Spiritual Association of Muslims of Kazakhstan", headed by a supreme mufti. [6] The Eid al-Adha is recognized as a national holiday. [5]

In 2020, 20% of the population was Orthodox Christian, traditionally including ethnic Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians. [7] In 2011, other Christian groups in the country included Catholics and Protestants (Baptists, Presbyterians, Lutherans, Pentecostals, Methodists, Mennonites and Seventh-day Adventists), including restorationist Christian faiths such as Jehovah's Witnesses and The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints. [8] In 2011 there were a total of 175 registered Orthodox churches, 53 Catholic churches, and 343 Protestant churches and prayer houses; other religious registered groups included Judaism, the Baháʼí Faith, Hinduism, Buddhism, the Church of Scientology, Christian Science, and the Unification Church. [8] The Ahmadiyya community is not registered despite several attempts since 2011. [9]

Christmas, rendered in the Russian Orthodox manner according to the Julian calendar, is recognized as a national holiday in Kazakhstan. [5]

The government considers several religions as 'traditional', including Hanafi Sunni Islam, the Russian Orthodox Church, Greek and Roman Catholicism, Lutheranism, and Judaism; some parts of the country can be wary of members of 'nontraditional' minority religious groups. [9]

In 2022, President Tokayev stated that the country was a "secular and tolerant country" but noted that the authorities will not "turn a blind eye to various radical movements and religious separatism.” [9]

Religious history

Church of the East and its largest extent during the Middle Ages. Church of the East in the Middle Ages.svg
Church of the East and its largest extent during the Middle Ages.

The country has historically hosted a wide variety of ethnic groups with varying religions. The foundation of an independent republic, following the disintegration of the USSR, has launched a great deal of changes in every aspect of people's lives. Religiosity of the population, as an essential part of any cultural identity, has undergone dynamic transformations as well.

Baptist Churches are often raided. This is due to the church members gathering without registering themselves, a requirement of the country. Anyone who does not register risk being raided by the police. However not only those that violate the law are treated harshly. [10]

On May 2, 2017, a court in the capital of Astana, Kazakhstan, sentenced a 61-year-old husband and father of three sons to a five-year prison sentence for performing peaceful Bible education work. Teymur Akhmedov, is a member of Jehovah's Witnesses. The court called his preaching and teaching efforts “inciting religious discord” and “advocating [religious] superiority.” In addition, the judge also imposed a three-year ban on Mr. Akhmedov’s participation in Bible education activities. Mr Akhmedov's medical issues were not considered, as he requires treatment for a bleeding tumor and has been denied the medical attention that he requires. [11]

After decades of suppressed culture, the people were feeling a great need to exhibit their ethnic identity - in part through religion. Quantitative research shows that for the first years after the establishment of the new laws, waiving any restrictions on religious beliefs and proclaiming full freedom of confessions, the country experienced a huge spike in religious activity of its citizens. Hundreds of mosques, synagogues, churches, and other religious structures were built in a matter of years. All represented religions benefited from increased number of members and facilities. Many confessions that were absent before independence made their way into the country, appealing to hundreds of people. The government supported this activity, and has done its best to provide equality among all religious organizations and their followers. In the late 1990s, however, a slight decline in religiosity occurred.[ citation needed ] The draft religion law being considered in June 2008 has raised international concern over whether there is an intention to meet general standards of freedom of religion and human rights. [12]

Faiths

Islam

Islam is the most commonly practiced religion in Kazakhstan; it was introduced to the region during the 9th century by the gulf region. [13] Traditionally ethnic Kazakhs are muslim who mainly follow the Hanafi school. [14]

Kazakhs including other ethnic groups of Muslim background make up over 90 per cent of all Muslims. [15] The southern region of the country has the highest concentration of self-identified practicing Muslims.

Christianity

Ascension Cathedral in Almaty E8478-Almaty-Ascension-Cathedral.jpg
Ascension Cathedral in Almaty

Christianity in Kazakhstan is the second most practiced religion after Islam. Most Christian citizens are Russians, and to a lesser extent Ukrainians and Belarusians, who belong to the Russian Orthodox Church.

The 2021 census noted that Kazakhstan is 17.19% Christian. [16] Other figures suggest that 24% of the population is Orthodox, 1% is either Protestant or Catholic and 1% belongs to other Christian denominations. [7]

In 2009, Christian groups included Lutheranism, Presbyterians, Methodists, Seventh-day Adventists, Pentecostals, Baptist (Union of Evangelical Christian Baptists of Kazakhstan), Mennonites and Mormons. [14] [17]

Jehovah's Witnesses are also present in the country although the group faces many restrictions by the government in the past. [18] [19] [20] [21]

"Kazakhstan is the strange core of traditionalist Catholicism," Catholic writer Ross Douthat stated in 2018. [22]

Baháʼí Faith

The Baháʼí Faith in Kazakhstan began during the policy of oppression of religion in the former Soviet Union. Before that time, Kazakhstan, as part of the Russian Empire, would have had indirect contact with the Baháʼí Faith as far back as 1847. [23] Following the entrance of Baháʼí pioneers the community grew to be the largest religious community after Islam and Christianity, though only a few percent of the nation. [24] By 1994 the National Spiritual Assembly of Kazakhstan was elected [25] and the community has begun to multiply its efforts across various interests. The Association of Religion Data Archives (relying on World Christian Encyclopedia) estimated some 7,000 Baháʼís in 2010. [26]

Judaism

Chabad-Lubavitch synagogue in Almaty, depicted on a postage stamp from Kazakhstan in 2006. Stamp of Kazakhstan 565.jpg
Chabad-Lubavitch synagogue in Almaty, depicted on a postage stamp from Kazakhstan in 2006.

Kazakh Jews have a long history. There are approximately 2,500-3,300 Jews in Kazakhstan, less than 1% of the population. Most Kazakh Jews are Ashkenazi and speak Russian. [27] [28]

Buddhism

Buddhism has existed in Kazakhstan since the 17th century, which is evidenced by the ancient pagodas and temples discovered by scientists during excavations. At present, there are only two officially registered Buddhist organisations in Kazakhstan, one belongs to Won Buddhism that originated from Korea and the other organization belongs to Tibetan Buddhism. [29]

According to the 2009 Census, there were 14,663 Buddhists in Kazakhstan. Also, according to from general Population census results of the Kazakhstan 2021, there are around 15,458 Buddhists in the country

Hinduism

Hindus in Kazakhstan are mainly composed of the ISKCON sect and Diaspora Hindus from India. There were about 801 Hindus in Kazakhstan in 2010 according to ARDA. [30]

Pagan

Tengrism

Tengrism is a Central Asian religion characterized by shamanism, animism, totemism, poly- and monotheism and ancestor worship. It was the prevailing religion of the Turks, Mongols, Hungarians, Xiongnu and Huns, and the religion of the five ancient Turkic states: Göktürk Khaganate, Western Turkic Khaganate, Great Bulgaria, Bulgarian Empire and Eastern Tourkia (Khazaria). In Irk Bitig , Tengri is mentioned as Türük Tängrisi (God of Turks).

Tengrists view their existence as sustained by the eternal blue sky (Tengri), the fertile mother-earth spirit (Umay) and a ruler regarded as the holy spirit of the sky. Heaven, earth, spirits of nature and ancestors provide for every need and protect all humans. By living an upright, respectful life, a human will keep his world in balance and perfect his personal Wind Horse, or spirit. The Huns of the northern Caucasus reportedly believed in two gods: Tangri Han (or Tengri Khan), considered identical to the Persian Aspandiat and for whom horses were sacrificed, and Kuar (whose victims are struck by lightning). Tengrism is practiced in Kazakhstan, Sakha, Buryatia, Tuva and Mongolia in parallel with Tibetan Buddhism and Burkhanism.

Freedom of religion and religious tolerance

Kazakhstan has a very diverse and stable religious background. However, some reported occurrences of persecution against Hare Krishnas and Jehovah's Witnesses for proselytizing have raised concern in the international community. [31] [32] [33]

Article 22 of the Constitution of the Republic of Kazakhstan states that "everyone has the right to a freedom of conscience.” On May 18, 2011, the President of Kazakhstan adopted a decree establishing the Agency for Religious Affairs. The mission of the Agency is to coordinate interaction between the government, religious groups and civil society in order to ensure religious freedom in Kazakhstan. [34]

In 2003 Kazakhstan established Congress of Leaders of World and Traditional Religions, that aims to facilitate religious dialogue ensuring inter-religious tolerance, and freedom in Kazakhstan. [35]

In 2023, the country was scored 1 out of 4 for religious freedom. [36] It was noted that legal amendments in 2022 placed extra restrictions on citizens.

Regional distribution

As of the 2021 census: [16]

Region Islam Christianity Other Atheism Undeclared
# %# %# %# %# %
Total13,297,775
69.31%
3,297,550
17.19%
45,897
0.24%
432,140
2.25%
2,112,653
11.01%
Akmola Region 362,070
46.24%
287,619
36.73%
1,481
0.19%
14,578
1.86%
117,247
14.97%
Aktobe Region 760,924
83.97%
88,968
9.82%
1,788
0.20%
15,298
1.69%
39,242
4.33%
Almaty 1,172,838
57.77%
353,477
17.41%
11,501
0.56%
87,622
4.32%
404,847
19.94%
Almaty Region 1,482,673
69.07%
213,791
9.96%
5,340
0.25%
28,045
1.31%
416,727
19.41%
Astana 968,445
78.48%
135,656
10.99%
3,686
0.30%
28,474
2.31%
97,781
7.92%
Atyrau Region 563,53
83.66%
29,513
4.38%
870
0.13%
6,395
0.95%
73,284
10.88%
East Kazakhstan Region 846,457
63.11%
447,764
33.38%
2,984
0.22%
28,108
2.10%
15,979
1.19%
Jambyl Region 1,009,257
84.16%
90,275
7.53%
2,045
0.17%
14,403
1.20%
83,279
6.94%
Karaganda Region 701,013
51.99%
441,806
32.76%
5,988
0.44%
50,671
3.76%
148,990
11.05%
Kostanay Region 308,024
36.95%
366,880
44.01%
1,244
0.28%
40,343
4.84%
116,064
13.92%
Kyzylorda Region 784,051
96.21%
14,465
1.77%
666
0.09%
2,722
0.33%
13,027
1.60%
Mangystau Region 508,701
69.21%
30,967
4.18%
907
0.16%
32,191
4.38%
162,242
22.07%
Pavlodar Region 431,885
57.07%
286,298
37.83%
1,807
0.24%
16,508
2.18%
20,257
2.68%
North Kazakhstan Region 209,397
38.72%
298,288
55.16%
1,143
0.21%
10,035
1.86%
21,923
4.05%
Turkistan Region 1,897,485
92.38%
32,341
1.57%
792
0.05%
5,009
0.24%
118,394
5.76%
West Kazakhstan Region 529,961
78.44%
106,732
15.80%
1,342
0.19%
11,147
1.65%
26,473
3.92%

Religion by ethnic group

According to the 2009 Census data, most of the Central Asian Turkics are Muslims and Slavs are Orthodox (although more than 1% of Russians are Muslim), while Koreans are mixed between various different faiths including Christianity, Buddhism, Atheism, and Islam : [37]

Ethnic GroupIslamChristianJewishBuddhistOtherAtheistNA
Total
70.20%
36.32%
0.03%
0.09%
0.02%
2.82%
0.51%
Kazakhs
99.80%
0.9%
0.02%
0.01%
0.02%
0.01%
0.26%
Russians
1.43%
91.64%
0.04%
0.02%
0.03%
6.09%
0.75%
Uzbeks
99.05%
0.39%
0.01%
0.01%
0.02%
0.37%
0.16%
Ukrainians
0.94%
90.74%
0.03%
0.01%
0.02%
7.31%
0.94%
Uyghurs
98.35%
0.51%
0.02%
0.01%
0.03%
0.61%
0.47%
Tatars
79.57%
10.24%
0.02%
0.03%
0.06%
8.11%
1.97%
Germans
1.58%
81.59%
0.05%
0.04%
0.11%
13.96%
2.68%
Koreans
5.24%
49.35%
0.21%
11.40%
0.14%
28.51%
5.16%
Turks
99.13%
0.30%
0.01%
0.01%
0.02%
0.33%
0.21%
Azerbaijanis
94.81%
2.51%
0.02%
0.02%
0.03%
1.86%
0.76%
Belarusians
0.79%
90.16%
0.04%
0.01%
0.03%
7.82%
1.15%
Dungans
98.93%
0.37%
0.01%
0.03%
0.04%
0.34%
0.28%
Kurds
98.28%
0.53%
0.03%
0.02%
0.02%
0.74%
0.38%
Tajiks
97.78%
0.91%
0.01%
0.02%
0.08%
0.85%
0.35%
Poles
0.69%
90.07%
0.04%
0.01%
0.13%
7.30%
1.76%
Chechens
93.69%
2.99%
0.02%
0.01%
0.05%
2.08%
1.16%
Kyrgyz
96.67%
0.89%
0.03%
0.03%
0.02%
1.51%
0.86%
Others
34.69%
52.32%
0.82%
0.91%
0.13%
8.44%
2.69%

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Religion in Russia</span>

Orthodox Christianity is the most widely professed faith in Russia, with significant minorities of non-religious people and adherents of other faiths.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Religion in Vietnam</span>

The majority of Vietnamese do not follow any organized religion, instead participating in one or more practices of folk religions, such as venerating ancestors, or praying to deities, especially during Tết and other festivals. Folk religions were founded on endemic cultural beliefs that were historically affected by Confucianism and Taoism from ancient China, as well as by various strands of Buddhism. These three teachings or tam giáo were later joined by Christianity which has become a significant presence. Vietnam is also home of two indigenous religions: syncretic Caodaism and quasi-Buddhist Hoahaoism.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Religion in Mexico</span>

Christianity is the predominant religion in Mexico, with Catholicism being its largest denomination representing around 78% of the total population as of 2020. In recent decades the share of Catholics has been declining, due to the growth of other Christian denominations – especially various Protestant churches, Jehovah's Witness and Mormonism – which now constitute larger shares of the population. Conversion to non-Catholic denominations has been considerably lower than in Central America, and central Mexico remains one of the most Catholic areas in the world.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Religion in Montenegro</span>

Eastern Orthodox Christianity is largest religion in Montenegro, but there are also sizeable numbers of adherents of both Catholic Christianity and Islam.

As of 2011, most Armenians in Armenia are Christians (97%) and are members of the Armenian Apostolic Church, which is one of the oldest Christian churches. It was founded in the 1st century AD, and in 301 AD became the first branch of Christianity to become a state religion.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Religion in Uganda</span>

Christianity is the predominant religion in Uganda. According to the 2014 census, over 84 percent of the population was Christian, while about 14 percent of the population adhered to Islam, making it the largest minority religion. Anglicanism and Catholicism are the main Christian denominations in the country.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Religion in Romania</span>

Christianity is the main religion in Romania, with Romanian Orthodoxy being its largest denomination.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Christianity in Kazakhstan</span>

Christianity in Kazakhstan is the second most practiced religion after Islam and one of the major religions of Kazakhstan.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Religion in Mongolia</span>

Religion in Mongolia has been traditionally dominated by the schools of Mongolian Buddhism and by Mongolian shamanism, the ethnic religion of the Mongols. Historically, through their Mongol Empire the Mongols were exposed to the influences of Christianity and Islam, although these religions never came to dominate. During the communist period of the Mongolian People's Republic (1924–1992) all religions were suppressed, but with the transition to the parliamentary republic in the 1990s there has been a general revival of faiths.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Religion in Colombia</span>

Religion in Colombia is dominated by various branches of Christianity and is an expression of the different influences in the Colombian culture including the Spanish, the Native Amerindian and the Afro-Colombian, among others.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Religion in Georgia (country)</span>

Christianity is the predominant religion in Georgia. The wide variety of peoples inhabiting Georgia has meant a correspondingly rich array of active religions in the country.

The Turkmen of Turkmenistan, are predominantly Muslims. According the U.S. Department of State's International Religious Freedom Report for 2022,

According to U.S. government estimates, the country is 93 percent Muslim, 6.4 percent Eastern Orthodox, and 0.6 percent other. There are small communities of Jehovah's Witnesses, Shia Muslims, Baha’is, Roman Catholics, the International Society for Krishna Consciousness, and evangelical Christians, including Baptists and Pentecostals. Most ethnic Russians and Armenians identify as Orthodox Christian and generally are members of the Russian Orthodox Church or Armenian Apostolic Church. Some ethnic Russians and Armenians are also members of smaller Protestant groups. There are small pockets of Shia Muslims, consisting largely of ethnic Iranians, Azeris, and Kurds, some located in Ashgabat, with others along the border with Iran and in the western city of Turkmenbashy.

The 2021 census noted that Kazakhstan is 69.31% Muslim, 17.19% Christian, 11.25% other religious beliefs and 2.25% no religious belief.

The Constitution of Mongolia provides for freedom of religion; however, the law somewhat limits proselytism.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Religion in Paraguay</span>

Christianity is the predominant religion in Paraguay, with Catholicism being its largest denomination. Before the arrival of Spanish missionaries, the people residing in the territory of modern day Paraguay practiced a variety of religions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Religion in Cameroon</span>

Christianity is the majority religion in Cameroon, with significant minorities of the adherents of Islam and traditional faiths.

The Baháʼí Faith in Kazakhstan began during the policy of oppression of religion in the former Soviet Union. Before that time, Kazakhstan, as part of the Russian Empire, had indirect contact with the Baháʼí Faith as far back as 1847. Following the arrival of pioneers the community grew to be the largest religious community after Islam and Christianity, although only a minor percent of the national whole. By 1994 the National Spiritual Assembly of Kazakhstan was elected and the community had begun to multiply its efforts across various interests. The Association of Religion Data Archives estimated some 6,400 Baháʼís in 2005.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Religion in Slovakia</span>

Religion in Slovakia is predominantly Christianity, adhered to by about 68.8% of the population in 2021.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Religion in Mauritius</span>

Mauritius is a religiously diverse nation, with Hinduism being the most widely professed faith. According to the 2022 census conducted by Statistics Mauritius, 47.87% of the Mauritian population follows Hinduism, followed by Christianity (32.29%), out of which 24.94% are Catholic, Islam (18.24%) out of which 1.21% are Bangladeshi nationals and other religions (0.86%). 0.63% reported themselves as non-religious and 0.11% did not answer.

Database (WCD) 2010 and International Religious Freedom Report for 2012 of the U.S. Department of State. The article Religions by country has a sortable table from the Pew Forum report.

References

  1. ↑ https://web.archive.org/web/20220902140633/https://stat.gov.kz/api/getFile/?docId=ESTAT464825
  2. ↑ "Religious Identity Among Muslims". 9 August 2012.
  3. ↑ "Итоги переписи населения Республики Казахстан 2009 года". Archived from the original on June 28, 2010. Retrieved 2010-06-01.. stat.kz. 4 February 2010.
  4. ↑ "Religious Composition by Country, 2010-2050". Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project. 2015-04-02. Retrieved 2020-10-29.
  5. 1 2 3 Religious Situation Review in Kazakhstan Congress of World Religions. Retrieved on 2009-09-07.
  6. ↑ Islam in Kazakhstan Retrieved on 2009-09-07.
  7. 1 2 World Religion Database at the ARDA website, retrieved 2023-08-08
  8. 1 2 Kazakhstan – International Religious Freedom Report 2010 U.S. Department of State. Retrieved on 13 January 2011.
  9. 1 2 3 Kazakhstan - International Religious Freedom Report 2022 U.S. Department of State.
  10. ↑ "Raids on Churches in Kazakhstan - Open Doors USA - Open Doors USA".
  11. ↑ "Kazakhstan Imprisons Ailing Jehovah's Witness and Bans His Worship".
  12. ↑ Bayram, Mushfig (2008-06-10). "KAZAKHSTAN: Restrictive draft Religion Law to reach full parliament tomorrow". Forum 18. Retrieved 2009-06-05.
  13. ↑ "The Beliefs of the Kazakhstan People". Archived from the original on 2008-09-18. Retrieved 2008-05-27. The Beliefs of the Kazakhstan people
  14. 1 2 International Religious Freedom Report 2006 Archived 2008-06-22 at the Wayback Machine U.S. Embassy in Astana, Kazakhstan
  15. ↑ Estimation based on Kazakh population share of 67% (Итоги 10 дней с 25 февраля по 6 марта [ dead link ]) and 16.3 mln total population according to the preliminary results of the 2009 National Census Archived 2009-04-21 at the Wayback Machine
  16. 1 2 "2021 жылғы Қазақстан Республикасы халқының ұлттық санағының қорытындылары" [Results of the 2021 Population Census of the Republic of Kazakhstan] (in Kazakh). Agency of Strategic Planning and Reforms of the Republic of Kazakhstan National Bureau of Statistics. Retrieved 19 September 2022.
  17. ↑ "The results of the national population census in 2009". Agency of Statistics of the Republic of Kazakhstan. 12 November 2010. Archived from the original on 22 July 2011. Retrieved 13 January 2011.
  18. ↑ "Religious Freedom in Kazakhstan: The Case of Teymur Akhmedov – CSCE". 14 September 2017.
  19. ↑ "Kazakhstan".
  20. ↑ "5 Years in Prison for Kazakh Jehovah's Witness".
  21. ↑ "Kazakhstan: Closure of Jehovah's Witnesses operation is sign of creeping religious intolerance". 18 July 2017.
  22. ↑ Douthat, Ross (2018-02-27). "Uncommon Knowledge" (Interview). Interviewed by Peter Robinson . Retrieved 2018-04-30.
  23. ↑ Momen, Moojan. "Russia". Baháʼí Encyclopedia (draft article). Retrieved 2008-04-14– via Baháʼí Library Online.
  24. ↑ Government of Kazakhstan (2001). "Religious Groups in Kazakhstan". 2001 Census. Embassy of Kazakhstan to the USA & Canada. Archived from the original on 2006-10-31. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
  25. ↑ The Bahá'í Faith: 1844-1963: Information Statistical and Comparative, Including the Achievements of the Ten Year International Baháʼí Teaching & Consolidation Plan 1953-1963, Compiled by Hands of the Cause Residing in the Holy Land, pages 22 and 46.
  26. ↑ "QuickLists: Most Baha'i (sic) Nations (2010)". Association of Religion Data Archives . 2010. Retrieved 2020-10-20.
  27. ↑ "Kazakhstan - World Jewish Congress". World Jewish Congress. Retrieved April 10, 2024.
  28. ↑ "Kazakhstan Virtual Jewish History Tour". Jewish Virtual Library. Retrieved April 10, 2024.
  29. ↑ "Kazakhstanis in Search of Nirvana: How Buddhism Came to Kazakhstan". cabar.asia. 2019-01-14. Retrieved 2021-08-30.
  30. ↑ "Most Hindu Nations (2010)". QuickLists > Compare Nations > Religions >. The Association of Religion Data Archives. 2010. Retrieved February 20, 2022.
  31. ↑ Corley, Felix (2007-04-03). "KAZAKHSTAN: Officially-inspired intolerance of religious freedom steps up". Forum 18. Retrieved 2009-06-05.
  32. ↑ Corley, Felix (2006-12-06). "KAZAKHSTAN: More Hare Krishna home demolitions planned?". Forum 18. Retrieved 2009-06-05.
  33. ↑ Palace of the Soul: Project Updates Archived 2008-03-20 at the Wayback Machine
  34. ↑ "Religious Affairs Agency Works to Protect Freedoms, Stop Extremist Ideologies". astanatimes.com. 10 July 2013.
  35. ↑ "Historic Potential of the Congress of Leaders of World and Traditional Religions". astanatimes.com. 25 September 2013.
  36. ↑ Freedom House website, 2023-08-08
  37. ↑ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on May 11, 2011. Retrieved July 24, 2011.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)

PD-icon.svg This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain . Country Studies. Federal Research Division.

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.