Хуэйзў / 东干族 / Dōnggānzú | |
---|---|
Dungan girls in Sortobe, Kazakhstan | |
Total population | |
175,782 | |
Regions with significant populations | |
![]() | 76,573 [1] |
![]() | 74,409 [2] |
![]() | 3,028 [3] |
∟ ![]() | 207 (2010) [4] |
∟ ![]() | 53 (2010) [4] |
∟ ![]() | 43 (2010) [4] |
∟ ![]() | 500 (2018) [4] |
∟ ![]() | 41 (2010) [4] |
∟ ![]() | 760 (2010) [4] |
![]() | 6,000[ citation needed ] |
![]() | 5,300[ citation needed ] |
![]() | 1,900[ citation needed ] |
![]() | 133 [5] |
Languages | |
Dungan or Mandarin Chinese Secondary languages: | |
Religion | |
Sunni Islam | |
Related ethnic groups | |
Hui, Han people |
Dungan [lower-alpha 1] is a term used in territories of the former Soviet Union to refer to a group of Muslim people of Hui origin. [6] Turkic-speaking peoples in Xinjiang Province in Northwestern China also sometimes refer to Hui Muslims as Dungans. [7] In both China and the former Soviet republics where they reside, however, members of this ethnic group call themselves Hui because Dungans are descendants of historical Hui groups that migrated to Central Asia.
In the censuses of the countries of the former Soviet Union, the Dungans (enumerated separately from Chinese) are found in Kazakhstan (36,900 according to the 1999 census), Kyrgyzstan (58,409 according to the 2009 census) and Russia (801 according to the 2002 census). [8] [9] [3]
In the Ferghana Valley, the first Dungans to appear in Central Asia originated from Kuldja and Kashgar, as slaves captured by raiders; they mostly served in private wealthy households. After the Russians conquered Central Asia in the late 19th century and abolished slavery, most female Dungan slaves remained where they had originally been held captive. Russian ethnographer Vlaidimir Petrovich Nalivkin and his wife said that "women slaves almost all remained in place, because they either were married to workers and servants of their former owners or they were too young to begin an independent life". [10] Dungan women slaves were of low status and not regarded highly in Bukhara. [11]
Turkic Muslim slave-raiders from Khoqand did not distinguish between Hui Muslim and Han Chinese, enslaving Hui Muslims in violation of Islamic law. [12] [13] During the Afaqi Khoja revolts Turkic Muslim Khoja Jahangir Khoja led an invasion of Kashgar from the Kokand Khanate and Jahangir's forces captured several hundred Dungan Chinese Muslims (Tungan or Hui) who were taken to Kokand. Tajiks bought two Chinese slaves from Shaanxi; they were enslaved for a year before being returned by the Tajik Beg Ku-bu-te to China. [14] All Dungans captured, both merchants and the 300 soldiers Janhangir captured in Kashgar, had their queues cut off when brought to Kokand and Central Asia as prisoners. [15] [16] [ clarification needed ] Many of the captives became slaves. Accounts of these slaves in Central Asia increased. [17] [18] The queues were removed from Dungan Chinese Muslim prisoners and then sold or given away. Some of them escaped to Russian territory where they were repatriated back to China and the accounts of their captures were recorded in Chinese records. [19] [20] The Russians record an incident where they rescued these Chinese Muslim merchants who escaped, after they were sold by Jahangir's Army in Central Asia and sent them back to China. [21]
The Dungan in the former Soviet republics are Hui who fled China in the aftermath of the Hui Minorities' War (also known as the "Dungan Rebellion") in the 19th century. According to Rimsky-Korsakoff (1992), three separate groups of the Hui people fled to the Russian Empire across the Tian Shan mountains during the exceptionally severe winter of 1877/78 after the end of the Hui Minorities' War:
The next wave of immigration followed in the early 1880s. In accordance with the terms of the Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1881), which required the withdrawal of the Russian troops from the Upper Ili basin (the Kulja area), the Dungan (Hui) and Taranchi (Uyghur) people of the region were allowed to opt to move to the Russian side of the border. Many chose to do so; according to Russian statistics, 4,682 Hui moved to the Russian Empire under the treaty. They migrated in many small groups between 1881 and 1883, settling in the village of Sokuluk some 30 km west of Bishkek, as well as in a number of locations between the Chinese border and Sokuluk, in southeastern Kazakhstan and in northern Kyrgyzstan.
Dungan people | |||||||
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Chinese name | |||||||
Traditional Chinese | 東干族 | ||||||
Simplified Chinese | 东干族 | ||||||
| |||||||
Dunganese name | |||||||
Dungan | Хуэйзў Дунганзў | ||||||
Xiao'erjing | حُوِذَو | ||||||
Romanization | Huejzw | ||||||
Hanzi | 回族 | ||||||
Russian name | |||||||
Russian | Дунгане |
In the Russian Empire,Soviet Union,and the post-Soviet states,the Dungans continue to refer to themselves as the Hui people (Chinese : 回族 ,Huízú;in Cyrillic Soviet Dungan spelling,xуэйзў).
The name Dungan is of obscure origin. One popular theory derives this word from Turkic döñän ("one who turns"),which can be compared to Chinese 回 (huí),which has a similar meaning. Another theory derives it from the Chinese 东甘(Dong Gan),'Eastern Gansu',the region to which many of the Dungan can trace their ancestry;however the character gan (干) used in the name of the ethnic group is different from that used in the name of the province (甘).
The term "Dungan" ("Tonggan","Donggan") has been used by Central Asian Turkic-and Tajik-speaking people to refer to Chinese-speaking Muslims for several centuries. Joseph Fletcher cites Turkic and Persian manuscripts related to the preaching of the 17th century Kashgarian Sufi master Muhammad Yūsuf (or,possibly,his son Afaq Khoja) inside the Ming Empire (in today's Gansu and/or Qinghai),where the Kashgarian preacher is told to have converted 'ulamā-yi Tunganiyyān (i.e.,"Dungan ulema") into Sufism. [24]
Presumably,it was from the Turkic languages that the term was borrowed into Russian (дунгане,dungane (pl.);дунганин,dunganin (sing.)) and Chinese (simplified Chinese :东干族; traditional Chinese :東干族; pinyin :Dōnggānzú),as well as to Western European languages.
In English and German,the ethnonym "Dungan",in various spellings,has been attested as early as the 1830s,typically referring to the Hui people of Xinjiang. For example,James Prinsep in 1835 mentioned Muslim "Túngánis" in "Chinese Tartary". [25] [26] In 1839,Karl Ernst von Baer in his German-language account of Russian Empire and adjacent Asian lands has a one-page account of Chinese-speaking Muslim "Dungani" or "Tungani",who visited Orenburg in 1827 with a caravan from China;he also mentions "Tugean" as a spelling variant used by other authors. [27] R.M. Martin in 1847 mentions "Tungani" merchants in Yarkand. [28]
The word (mostly in the form "Dungani" or "Tungani",sometimes "Dungens" or "Dungans") acquired some currency in English and other western languages when a number of books in the 1860-1870s discussed the Dungan rebellion in northwestern China. At the time,European and American authors applied the term Tungani to the Hui people both in Xinjiang, [29] and in Shaanxi and Gansu (which at the time included today's Ningxia and Qinghai as well). Authors aware of the general picture of the spread of Islam in China,viewed these "Tungani" as just one of the groups of China's Muslims. [30]
Marshall Broomhall,who has a chapter on "the Tungan Rebellion" in his 1910 book,introduces "the name Tungan or Dungan,by which the Muslims of these parts [i.e.,NE China] are designated,as distinguished from the Chinese Buddhists who were spoken of as Kithay. The reference to "Khitay" shows that he was observing the two terms as used by Turkic speakers. [31] Broomhall's book also contains a translation of the report on Chinese Muslims by the Ottoman writer named Abd-ul-Aziz. Abd-ul-Aziz divides the "Tungan people" into two branches:"the Tunagans of China proper" (including,apparently all Hui people in "China proper",as he also talks e.g. about the Tungans having 17 mosques in Beijing),and "The Tungans of Chinese and Russian Turkestan",who still looked and spoke Chinese,but had often also learned the "Turkish" language. [32]
Later authors continued to use the term Dungan (in various transcriptions) for,specifically,the Hui people of Xinjiang. For example,Owen Lattimore,writing c. 1940,maintains the terminological distinction between these two related groups:"T'ungkan" (i.e. Wade-Giles for "Dungan"),described by him as the descendants of the Gansu Hui people resettled in Xinjiang in 17–18th centuries,vs. e.g. "Gansu Moslems" or generic "Chinese Moslems". [33] The term (usually as "Tungans") continues to be used by many modern historians writing about the 19th century Dungan Rebellion (e.g.,by Denis C. Twitchett in The Cambridge History of China, [34] by James A. Millward in his economic history of the region, [35] or by Kim Ho-dong in his monograph [36] ).
The Dungans themselves referred to Karakunuz (Russian :Каракунуз,sometimes Караконызor Караконуз) as "Ingpan" (Chinese :營盤,Yingpan;Russian :Иньпан),which means 'a camp,an encampment'. In 1965,Karakunuz was renamed Masanchi (sometimes spelt as "Masanchin"),after Magaza Masanchi or Masanchin (Dungan:МагәзыМасанчын;Chinese :馬三奇),a Dungan participant in the Communist Revolution and a statesman of Soviet Kazakhstan. [37]
The following table summarizes location of Dungan villages in Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan,alternative names used for them,and their Dungan population as reported by Ma Tong (2003). The Cyrillic Dungan spelling of place names is as in the textbook by Sushanlo,Imazov (1988);the spelling of the name in Chinese characters is as in Ma Tong (2003).
Village name (and alternatives) | Location (in present-day terms) | Foundation | Current Dungan population (from Ma Tang (2003)) |
---|---|---|---|
Kazakhstan –total 48,000 (Ma Tang (2003)) or 36,900 (Kazakhstan Census of 1999) | |||
Masanchi (Russian :Масанчи;Kazakh :Масаншы) or Masanchin (Russian:Масанчин;Cyrillic Dungan:Масанчын;馬三成),prior to 1965 Karakunuz (Каракунуз,Караконыз). Traditional Dungan name is Ingpan (Cyrillic Dungan:Йинпан;Russian:Иньпан;Chinese :營盤,Yingpan) | ( 42°55′40″N75°18′00″E / 42.92778°N 75.30000°E ) Korday District, Jambyl Region of Kazakhstan (8 km north of Tokmok, Kyrgyzstan) | Spring 1878. 3314 people from Shaanxi, led by Bai Yanhu (白彦虎). | 7,000, current mayor: Iskhar Yusupovich Lou |
Sortobe (Kazakh : Sortobe; Russian : Шортюбе, Shortyube; Dungan : Щёртюбе; Chinese :新渠, Xinqu) | ( 42°52′00″N75°15′15″E / 42.86667°N 75.25417°E ) Korday District, Jambyl Region. On the northern bank of the river Chu opposite and a few km downstream from Tokmok; south of Masanchi (Karakunuz) | (Karakunuz group) | 9,000 |
Zhalpak-tobe, (Kazakh : Жалпак-тобе; Chinese :加爾帕克秋白, Jiaerpakeqiubai) | Jambyl District, Jambyl Region; near Grodekovo, south of Taraz | 3,000 | |
Kyrgyzstan – total 50,000 (Ma Tang (2003) | |||
Yrdyk (Kyrgyz : Ырдык; Dungan : Эрдэх; Chinese :二道溝, Erdaogou) | ( 42°27′30″N78°18′0″E / 42.45833°N 78.30000°E ) Jeti-Ögüz District of Issyk-Kul Region; 15 km south-west from Karakol. | Spring 1878. 1130 people, originally from Didaozhou (狄道州) in Gansu, led by Ma Yusu (馬郁素), a.k.a. Ah Yelaoren (阿爺老人). | 2,800 |
Sokuluk (Kyrgyz : Сокулук; Dungan: Сохўлў; Chinese :梢葫蘆, Saohulu); may also include adjacent Aleksandrovka (Александровка) | Sokuluk District of Chüy Region; 30 km west of Bishkek | Some of those 4,628 Hui people who arrived in 1881–1883 from the Ili Basin (Xinjiang) . | 12,000 |
Milyanfan (Kyrgyz : Милянфан; Dungan : Милёнчуан; Chinese :米糧川, Miliangchuan) | Ysyk-Ata District of Chüy Region. Southern bank of the Chu River, some 60 km west of Tokmok and about as much north-east of Bishkek. | (Karakunuz group (?)) | 10,000 |
Ivanovka village (Kyrgyz : Ивановка; Chinese :伊萬諾夫卡) | Ysyk-Ata District of Chüy Region. Southern bank of the Chu River, some 30 km west of Tokmok. | (Karakunuz group (?)) | 1,500 |
Dungan community of Osh (Kyrgyz : Ош; Chinese :奥什 or 敖什, Aoshe) | Osh Region | Spring 1878, 1000 people, originally from Turpan in Xinjiang, led by Ma Daren, also known as Ma Da-lao-ye (馬大老爺) | 800 |
The position of the Kazakhstan villages within the administrative division of Jambyl Region, and the total population of each village can be found at the provincial statistics office web site. [38]
Besides the traditionally Dungan villages, many Dungan people live in the nearby cities, such as Bishkek, Tokmok, Karakol.
During World War II, some Dungans served in the Red Army, one of them who was Vanakhun Mansuza (Cyrillic Dungan: мансуза ванахун; traditional Chinese :曼苏茲(or子)·王阿洪; simplified Chinese :曼蘇茲·王阿洪; pinyin :Mànsūzī·Wángāhóng) a Dungan war "hero" who led a "mortar battery". [39]
Reportedly, Dungans were "strongly anti-Japanese". [40] During the 1930s, a White Russian driver for Nazi German agent Georg Vasel in Xinjiang was afraid to meet Hui general Ma Zhongying, saying: "You know how the Tungans hate the Russians." Vasel passed the Russian driver off as a German. [41]
As Ding (2005) notes, "[t]he Dungan people derive from China's Hui people, and now live mainly in Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan. Their population is about 110,000. This people have now developed a separate ethnicity outside China, yet they have close relations with the Hui people in culture, ethnic characteristics and ethnic identity." Today the Dungans play a role as cultural "shuttles" and economic mediators between Central Asia and the Chinese world. [42] Husei Daurov, the president of the Dungan center, [43] has succeeded in transforming cultural exchanges into commercial partnerships. [42]
In February 2020, a conflict broke out between ethnic Kazakhs and Dungans in the Korday area in Kazakhstan on the border to Kyrgyzstan. According to official Kazakh sources, 10 people were killed and many more were wounded. In the altercation, cars and homes were burned and rifles were fired. 600 people fled across the border to Kyrgyzstan. [44] [45]
The Dungan language, which the Dungan people call the "Hui language" (Хуэйзў йүян/回族語言 or Huejzw jyian), is similar to the Zhongyuan dialect of Mandarin Chinese, which is widely spoken in the south of Gansu and the west of Guanzhong in Shaanxi in China.
Like other varieties of Chinese, Dungan is tonal. There are two main dialects, one with four tones and the other, considered standard, with three tones in the final position in words and four tones in the non-final position.
Some Dungan vocabulary may sound old-fashioned to Chinese people. For example, they refer to a President as an "Emperor" (Хуаңды/皇帝, huan'g-di) and call government offices yamen (ямын/衙門, ya-min), a term for mandarins' offices in ancient China. Their language also contains many loanwords from Russian, Arabic, Persian and Turkic. Since the 1940s, the language has been written in Cyrillic script, though the language has historically also used Chinese characters and Xiao'erjing (Arabic script used for Chinese), though these are now considered obsolete.
Dungan people are generally multilingual. In addition to Dungan Chinese, more than two-thirds of the Dungan speak Russian and a small proportion can speak Kyrgyz or other languages belonging to the titular nationalities of the countries where they live. [46]
Nineteenth century explorer Henry Lansdell noted that the Dungan people abstained from spirits and opium, neither smoked nor took snuff and
"are of middle height, and inclined to be stout. They have high and prominent foreheads, thick and arched eyebrows, eyes rather sunken, fairly prominent cheek-bones, face oval, mouth of average size, lips thick, teeth normal, chin round, ears small and compressed, hair black and smooth, beard scanty and rough, skin smooth, neck strong, and extremities of average proportions. The characteristics of the Dungans are kindness, industry, and hospitality.
They engage in husbandry, horticulture, and trade. In domestic life parental authority is very strong. After the birth of a child the mother does not get up for fifteen days, and, without any particular feast, the child receives its name in the presence of a mullah the day succeeding that of its birth. Circumcision takes place on the eighth, ninth, or tenth day. When a girl is married she receives a dower. In sickness they have recourse to medicine and doctors, but never to exorcisms.
After death, the mullah and the aged assemble to recite prayers; the corpse is wrapped in white linen and then buried, but never burned. On returning from the interment the mullah and the elders partake of bread and meat. To saints they erect monuments like little mosques, for others simple hillocks. The widow may re-marry after 90 days, and on the third anniversary of the death a feast takes place." [47]
The Dungan are primarily farmers, growing rice and vegetables such as sugar beet. Many also raise dairy cattle. In addition, some are involved in opium production. The Dungan tend to be endogamous [ citation needed ].
The Dungan are well known for their hospitality and hold many ceremonies and banquets to preserve their culture. They have elaborate and colorful observances of birthdays, weddings, and funerals. In addition, schools have museums to preserve other parts of their culture, such as embroidery, traditional clothing, silver jewelry, paper cuts of animals and flowers and tools[ citation needed ].
The Dungan still practice elements of Chinese culture, in cuisine and attire, up to 1948 they also practiced foot binding until the practice was banned by the Soviet government, and later the Chinese government. [48] The conservative Shaanxi Dungan cling more tightly to Chinese customs than the Gansu Dungan. [49]
The Dungans have retained Chinese traditions which have disappeared in modern China. Traditional marriage practices are still widespread with matchmakers, the marriages conducted by the Dungan are similar to Chinese marriages in the 19th century, hairstyles worn by women and attire date back to the Qing dynasty. [50]
Shaanxi female attire is still Chinese, though the rest of the Dungans dress in western attire. Chopsticks are used by Dungans. [51] The cuisine of the Dungan resembles northwestern Chinese cuisine. [52] [53] However, being Muslims they do not consume pork, one of the most popular meats in Chinese cuisine, and meat is procured in accordance to being halal.
Around the late 19th century the bride price was between 240 and 400 rubles for Dungan women. Dungans have been known to take other women such as Kirghiz and Tatars as brides willingly, or kidnap Kirghiz girls. [54] Shaanxi Dungans are even conservative when marrying with other Dungans; they want only other Shaanxi Dungans marrying their daughters, while their sons are allowed to marry Gansu Dungan, Kirghiz, and Kazakh women. As recently as 1962, inter-ethnic marriage was reported to be anathema among Dungans. [55]
During the Qing dynasty, the term Zhongyuanren (中原人; 'A person from the Central Plains of China ') was synonymous with being mainstream Chinese, especially referring to Han Chinese and Hui Muslims in Xinjiang or Central Asia.
For religious reasons, while Hui people do not consider themselves Han and are not Han Chinese, they consider themselves part of the wider Chinese race and refer to themselves as Zhongyuanren. [56] The Dungan people, descendants of Hui who fled to Central Asia, called themselves Zhongyuanren in addition to the standard labels Lao Huihui and Huizi. [57]
Zhongyuanren was used generally by Turkic Muslims to refer to Han and Hui Chinese people. When Central Asian invaders from Kokand invaded Kashgar, in a letter the Kokandi commander criticizes the Kashgari Turkic Muslim Ishaq for allegedly not behaving like a Turkic-origin Muslim and wanting to be a Zhongyuanren. [58] [59]
Chinese Islamic cuisine consists of variations of regionally popular foods that are typical of Han Chinese cuisine, in particular to make them halal. Dishes borrow ingredients from Middle Eastern, Turkic, Iranian and South Asian cuisines, notably mutton and spices. Much like other northern Chinese cuisines, Chinese Islamic cuisine uses wheat noodles as the staple, rather than rice. Chinese Islamic dishes include clear-broth beef noodle soup and chuanr.
The Kyrgyz people are a Turkic ethnic group native to Central Asia. They primarily reside in Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, China, Pakistan and Afghanistan. A Kyrgyz diaspora is also found in Russia, Tajikistan, and Kazakhstan. They speak the Kyrgyz language, which is the official language of Kyrgyzstan.
The Hui people are an East Asian ethnoreligious group predominantly composed of Chinese-speaking adherents of Islam. They are distributed throughout China, mainly in the northwestern provinces and in the Zhongyuan region. According to the 2010 census, China is home to approximately 10.5 million Hui people. Outside China, the 170,000 Dungan people of Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan, Panthays in Myanmar and many of the Chin Haws in Thailand are also considered part of the Hui ethnicity.
Dungan is a Sinitic language spoken primarily in Kazakhstan, Russia and Kyrgyzstan by the Dungan people, an ethnic group related to the Hui people of China. Although it is derived from the Central Plains Mandarin of Gansu and Shaanxi, it is written in Cyrillic and contains loanwords and archaisms not found in other modern varieties of Mandarin.
The Kazakhs are a Turkic ethnic group native to Central Asia and Eastern Europe, mainly Kazakhstan, but also parts of northern Uzbekistan and the border regions of Russia, as well as northwestern China and western Mongolia. The Kazakhs arose from the merging of the medieval tribes of Turkic and Mongolic origin in the 15th century.
The Dungan Revolt (1862–1877), also known as the Tongzhi Hui Revolt or Hui (Muslim) Minorities War, was a war fought in 19th-century western China, mostly during the reign of the Tongzhi Emperor of the Qing dynasty. The term sometimes includes the Panthay Rebellion in Yunnan, which occurred during the same period. However, this article refers specifically to two waves of uprising by various Chinese Muslims, mostly Hui people, in Shaanxi, Gansu and Ningxia provinces in the first wave, and then in Xinjiang in the second wave, between 1862 and 1877. The uprising was eventually suppressed by Qing forces led by Zuo Zongtang.
The East Turkestan Republic (ETR) was a short-lived satellite state of the Soviet Union in northern Xinjiang, which existed from 1944 to 1946. It is often described as the Second East Turkestan Republic to differentiate it from the First East Turkestan Republic (1933–1934), but "second" was never a part of its official name.
Xinjiang is historically consisted of two main geographically, historically, and ethnically distinct regions with different historical names: Dzungaria north of the Tianshan Mountains; and the Tarim Basin south of the Tianshan Mountains, currently mainly inhabited by the Uyghurs. They were conquered by the Qing dynasty in the 18th century, and after the Dungan Revolt (1862–1877) the Qing reconquered both regions and integrated them into one province named Xinjiang in 1884.
During the Manchu-led Qing dynasty (1644–1912), Islam was a significant religion in Northwestern China and Yunnan. There were five major Muslim rebellions during the Qing period. The first and last rebellions were caused by sectarian infighting between rival Sufi Muslim orders.
The Treaty of Saint Petersburg or Treaty of Ili was an unequal treaty between the Russian Empire and the Qing dynasty that was signed in Saint Petersburg, Russia, on 24 February [O.S. 12 February] 1881. It provided for the return to China of the eastern part of the Ili Basin region, also known as Zhetysu, which had been occupied by Russia since 1871 during the Dungan Revolt.
Kazakhs are a Turkic ethnic group and one of the 56 ethnic groups officially recognized by the People's Republic of China. There is one Kazakh autonomous prefecture – Ili in Xinjiang – and three Kazakh autonomous counties – Aksay in Gansu, and Barkol and Mori in Xinjiang.
Iasyr Shivaza, also known as Xianma, was a Soviet poet, writer, linguist, translator, and social activist, known for his contributions to Dungan art and culture.
The Ili Rebellion was a separatist uprising by the Turkic peoples of northern Xinjiang against the Kuomintang government of the Republic of China, from 1944 to 1946. The Ili Rebellion began with the East Turkestan National Revolution, known in Chinese historiography as the Three Districts Revolution, which saw the establishment of the Second East Turkestan Republic. The leadership was dominated by Uyghurs but the population consisted mostly of Kazakhs.
Ma Zhongying, also Ma Chung-ying, nickname Commander Ga, was a Hui Chinese Muslim warlord during the Warlord era of China. His birth name was Ma Buying. Ma was a warlord of Gansu Province in China during the 1930s. His alliance with the Kuomintang (KMT) brought his predominantly Chinese Muslim troops under the control of the KMT as the New 36th Division with Ma Zhongying as its commander. He was ordered to overthrow Jin Shuren, the governor of Xinjiang. After several victories over provincial and White Russian forces, he attempted to expand his territory into southern Xinjiang by launching campaigns from his power base in Gansu, but was stopped by Xinjiang warlord Sheng Shicai with Soviet support in 1934.
Migration to Xinjiang is both an ongoing and historical movement of people, often sponsored by various states who controlled the region, including the Han dynasty, Tang dynasty, Uyghur Khaganate, Yuan dynasty, Qing dynasty, Republic of China and People's Republic of China.
The Manchu-led Qing dynasty of China ruled over Xinjiang from the late 1750s to 1912. In the history of Xinjiang, the Qing rule was established in the final phase of the Dzungar–Qing Wars when the Dzungar Khanate was conquered by the Qing dynasty, and lasted until the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1912. The post of General of Ili was established to govern the whole of Xinjiang and reported to the Lifan Yuan, a Qing government agency that oversaw the empire's frontier regions. Xinjiang was turned into a province in 1884.
Tunganistan is an exonym for the territory in southern Xinjiang administered by the New 36th Division of the National Revolutionary Army from 1934 to 1937, amidst the Chinese Civil War in China proper. The New 36th Division consisted almost exclusively of Hui Muslim soldiers and was led by the Hui Muslim warlord Ma Hushan. At the time, the Hui were known as the "Tunganis" in Western literature, hence the name "Tunganistan".
Bai Yanhu, also known as Mohammed Ayub, was a Hui military commander and rebel from Shaanxi, China. He was known for leading a group of Hui people across the vast lands of northwestern China to Kyrgyzstan under Russian rule. The descendants of him and his followers live in still Central Asia to this day and are known as the Dungan people.
Маsanchi is a Kazakhstani village in the Korday District of the Jambyl Province. The village is located near the border with Kyrgyzstan, is approximately 45 kilometers southeast of the village of Korday, and approximately 130 kilometers southwest of Almaty.
Yettishar, also known as Kashgaria, was a Turkic state that existed in Xinjiang from 1864 to 1877, during the Dungan Revolt against the Qing dynasty. It was an Islamic monarchy ruled by Yakub Beg, a Kokandi who secured power in Kashgar through a series of military and political manoeuvres. Yettishar's eponymous seven cities were Kashgar, Khotan, Yarkand, Yengisar, Aksu, Kucha, and Korla.
However, the authorities' control over Dungan mosques is less strict than over mosques used by Uighurs, a Turkic people mainly found in Xinjiang but also in Central Asian states. (The Dungans are a Chinese Muslim people also found in Central Asian states.)
khoqand raiders seizing chinese slaves in east turkistan failed to between hui muslims and han.
a trickle of chinese also reached turkistan well into the nineteenth century.
Right after Bi Yankhu's arrival, from 1878 until 1903, the village was called 'Karakunuz', meaning 'black beetle' in local Turkic languages. Dyer (1992) believes that this was a nickname given by local Turkic-speakers to Dungans, due to the fact that Dungan women liked to wear black at that time. In 1903 the name changed to 'Nikolaevka' (after the Russian Tsar) and it changed again in 1918, when the name 'Karakunuz' was again adopted, and did not change until 1964, when, as part of the rehabilitation of Magaza Masanchi, the village was renamed after him: 'Masanchi'. Besides these official names, Masanchi also has a Dungan name, Yinpan, which appears in the left image on the wall7.
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