Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association | |||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Traditional Chinese | 中華會館 | ||||||||||
Simplified Chinese | 中华会馆 | ||||||||||
| |||||||||||
Alternative Chinese name | |||||||||||
Traditional Chinese | 中華公所 | ||||||||||
Simplified Chinese | 中华公所 | ||||||||||
| |||||||||||
Second alternative Chinese name | |||||||||||
Chinese | 六大公司 | ||||||||||
Literal meaning | big six companies | ||||||||||
|
The Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association (CCBA) is a historical Chinese association established in various parts of the United States and Canada with large Overseas Chinese communities. The association's clientele were Chinese immigrants of the late 19th and early 20th centuries,mainly from eight districts on the west side of the Pearl River Delta in Guangdong,southern China,and their descendants. The later wave of Chinese immigrants,after 1965,who came from a much wider area in China,did not experience the level of hostility faced by the pioneers and did not join the CCBA,which greatly lessened its influence. [1]
In English,the association is also known by other names,such as the Chinese Six Companies in San Francisco, [2] especially when it began in the 19th century;Chong Wa Benevolent Association in Seattle;and United Chinese Society in Honolulu.
In the Western and Midwestern United States as well as Western Canada,中華會館 is the common Chinese name. In the Eastern United States and Eastern Canada,中華公所 is the common Chinese name. 中華 means "Chinese" in the context of the Chinese nation (Zhonghua minzu),while both 會館 and 公所 have historically referred to trade associations.
Since its organization in the 1850s and formal establishment in 1882 in San Francisco's Chinatown,the Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association (CCBA) has received diverse publicity from American media. Much of the attention often overlooked inherent cultural differences,leading to misunderstanding by much of the American population. [3] This factor,together with increasing anti-Chinese sentiment,hastened the need for an empowered Chinese organization in the US. Thus,the CCBA was formed out of the need for the Chinese to have organized social,political,and economic structures. [3]
The CCBA was set up to help Chinese people relocate and travel to and from the US,including returning bodies of the deceased to China. [4] With many families fragmented between China and across the US,the association also allowed for communal care of the sick or poor. [4] When the association became more prominent and anti-Chinese sentiment increased,the organization also offered legal and physical protection. Physical abuse was not uncommon in Chinatown from racist Americans. Such incidents led to the rise of groups like the tongs ,which were noted to have protected the Chinese from abuse by white miners. [4]
The CCBA also exerted political power,becoming authorized to speak on behalf of Chinatown throughout the US. [5] Its board of directors became increasingly powerful,consisting of wealthy merchants and business people. [5] The board had many dealings with local and federal governments,exerting influence in various methods. One was the use of a Caucasian attorney,who was also the spokesperson of the organization,which likely helped reduce pushback. [5]
Through the 1800s,a large portion of Chinese immigrants to California came for the promise of work in the gold mines,and their contribution was integral to the economic boom the state experienced due to the discovery of gold. When this industry declined,the Chinese found other opportunities,such as fishing,food service,farming,and railroad building. [6] Many in the mid-to-late 19th century argued that the influx of Chinese immigrants decreased job availability for American citizens. However,the job competition theory is disputed due to the strong language barrier that forced many Chinese to create their jobs. [7]
Upon their arrival during the California gold rush, Chinese immigrants felt the government in Gold Mountain did not protect their interests. To protect and support one another, these Chinese pioneers from the Pearl River Delta formed the Sze Yup and Sam Yap associations in San Francisco's Chinatown. With more Chinese immigrants from other districts, who spoke different dialects, two more associations formed in 1852, followed by two more splitting off Sze Yup. [3] These organizations became the six most important Chinese district associations in California. [8] The associations had some mutual coordination [9] before the CCBA was established, in 1882. [3] [10]
These immigrant organizations were rooted in the Chinese tradition of huiguan (traditional Chinese :會館; simplified Chinese :会馆; pinyin :huìguǎn; Jyutping :wui6gun2), [11] viz., support groups for merchants and workers originating from a given area. The vast majority of Chinese in California were from various districts on the west side of the Pearl River Delta, in Guangdong province. Thus, the first huiguan, or ui-kun, as it was locally known [12] in Cantonese San Francisco, the Sam Yap (Chinese :三邑; pinyin :sānyì; Jyutping :sam1 jap1; lit.'Three counties') Company, emerged in 1851. It was associated with the Nanhai, Panyu, Shunde, Sanshui, and Xingyun districts. [13] Towards the end of 1851, the Sze Yap (Chinese :四邑; pinyin :Sìyì; Jyutping :sei3 jap1; lit.'Four Counties') company of Xinhui, Kaiping, Xinning, and Enping districts was created. [13] This was followed by the Yeong Wo (Chinese :陽 和) company of Heung-shan, Tung-kun, and Tsang-shing districts, in 1852; [14] and the Hip Kat company, formed by Hakka immigrants from Bow On, Chak Tai, Tung Gwoon, and Chu Mui districts, in 1852. [13] In this manner, "Chinese in California had become organized into four regional dialect groupings" [3] : 17 or, as locally known, "four Ooe-Koons, or great Chinese houses of San Francisco". [15]
Owing to internal disputes in the large Sze Yup company, the Ning Yeung (Chinese :寧 陽) company emerged in 1853, and the Hop Wo (Chinese :合 和) company split off in 1862. [3] In 1867, the twice-reduced Sze Yup was reorganized as the Kong Chow (Chinese :岡 州) company. [16] [17] Friction within the Hop Wo company led to the formation of the Sue Hing (Chinese :肇 慶) company in 1878. [3] : 18
The Six Companies served as ambassadors of the Qing government, which did not have a consulate in Chinatown until the end of the 1870s, and provided services for arriving Chinese immigrants and workers in San Francisco. [18] : 42 Their early efforts included deterring prostitution in the Chinese community, encouraging Chinese immigrants to lead moral lives, and discouraging excessive Chinese immigration, which was causing hostility towards them. [19] The Six Companies also created a safety net for sick Chinese workers, by lending them money. They opened a Chinese-language school, settled disputes among members, maintained a Chinese census, and helped members send remittances to their home villages through district associations. [20] In 1875, they endorsed the position that continued Chinese immigration caused a general lowering of wages for both whites and Chinese in America. [21]
One of the most important roles of the CCBA was that of defender and sometimes litigator of civil rights. For example, they hired police officers to watch over Chinese businesses and properties in San Francisco. They also hired White lawyers to help them fight anti-Chinese legislation on the city, state, and federal levels. [18] The 1898 landmark case of Wong Kim Ark, which established US citizenship for American-born children of Chinese parents, was successfully argued in the US Supreme Court with the assistance of legal representation from the CCBA. [22] : 67
Though the Six Companies discouraged the continuing immigration of Chinese to the US, the phenomenon persisted. In the 1960s, discrimination began to arise within these Chinese communities. Assimilation of Chinese communities increased through the years, causing a cultural clash between new arrivals and those who were American-born and had assimilated to the culture. Many new Chinese immigrants came to America without savings, as most of their money was spent on transportation to the US. Many immigrant children were also affected by these conditions, having to work when they were not in school, and struggling to learn English. This led to many of the children of new immigrants dropping out and joining gangs that engaged in violence in Chinatown. In 1968, during a human rights commission hearing held in San Francisco, the Wah Ching gang asked for a community clubhouse and a two-year program to help them gain vocational skills and earn high school diplomas. The CCBA advised the commission: "They have not shown that they are sorry or that they will change their ways. They have threatened the community. If you give in to this group, you are only going to have another hundred immigrants come in and have a whole new series of threats and demands." [23]
In 2022, the first female CCBA president, head of the Yan Wo company, was installed. [24]
In New York City, the CCBA was established in 1883. It acts as an umbrella organization for sixty member organizations representing a cross section of New York's Chinese community. They include professional and trade organizations, civic, religious, cultural, and women's groups, and organizations such as the Lin Sing Association.
The CCBA spearheaded the move to form the Chinese Voters Federation in May 2004 to encourage qualified Chinese American citizens to register and vote in the 2004 presidential election.
Immediately following the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami, the CCBA led an emergency community-wide campaign to raise funds for the victims, a drive that raised more than $500,000 for the American Red Cross Emergency Response Fund. In September 2005, right after the Hurricane Katrina disaster, the CCBA and Sing Tao Daily teamed up and raised $170,000 for the victims.
The CCBA also works with many mainstream organizations to provide services to the Chinese American community, such as the Visiting Nurse Service of New York and the American Cancer Society. In December 2006, the CCBA and the American Red Cross of Greater New York signed a memorandum of understanding to coordinate programs in Chinatown that will help prepare and train the Chinese community for any kind of emergency.
The Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association of New England, popularly known as CCBA, is a tax-exempt organization established in 1923. Currently with 35 members consisting of family associations and community organizations, the CCBA serves as the umbrella organization for the Chinese communities of New England.
Besides sponsoring activities, the CCBA manages Tai Tung Village and Waterford Place, apartment complexes that provide affordable housing to the Chinese community. Partnering with Chinatown Main Street and other organizations, the CCBA coordinates activities such as the lion dance celebration for the Lunar New Year and the annual August Moon Festival, to attract visitors and to further economic growth in Chinatown; it also hosts dignitary visits to the Chinatown community.
In Seattle, Washington, the Chong Wa Association was established around 1915. [25]
The CCBA has several branches in the United States and Canada, including: [26]
Chinatown is the catch-all name for an ethnic enclave of Chinese people located outside Greater China, most often in an urban setting. Areas known as "Chinatown" exist throughout the world, including Europe, Asia, Africa, Oceania, and the Americas.
A tong is a type of organization found among Chinese immigrants predominantly living in the United States, with smaller numbers in Canada, Australia, and the United Kingdom. In Chinese, the word tong means "hall" or "gathering place". These organizations are described as secret societies or sworn brotherhoods and are often tied to criminal activity. In the 1990s, in most American Chinatowns, clearly marked tong halls could easily be found, many of which have had affiliations with Chinese organized crime.
Chinese immigrants began settling in Canada in the 1780s. The major periods of Chinese immigration would take place from 1858 to 1923 and 1947 to the present day, reflecting changes in the Canadian government's immigration policy.
The Chinatown centered on Grant Avenue and Stockton Street in San Francisco, California, is the oldest Chinatown in North America and one of the largest Chinese enclaves outside Asia. It is also the oldest and largest of the four notable Chinese enclaves within San Francisco. Since its establishment in the early 1850s, it has been important and influential in the history and culture of ethnic Chinese immigrants in North America. Chinatown is an enclave that has retained its own customs, languages, places of worship, social clubs, and identity.
Kongsi is a Hokkien transcription term meaning "company", especially businesses which have been incorporated. However, the word has other meanings under different historical contexts. Kongsi were most commonly known as Chinese social organizations or partnerships, but the term was also used for various Chinese institutions.
The Siyi refers to the four former counties of Xinhui (Sunwui), Taishan (Toisan), Kaiping (Hoiping) and Enping (Yanping) on the west side of the Pearl River Delta in Southern Guangdong Province, China.
The history of Chinese Americans or the history of ethnic Chinese in the United States includes three major waves of Chinese immigration to the United States, beginning in the 19th century. Chinese immigrants in the 19th century worked in the California Gold Rush of the 1850s and the Central Pacific Railroad in the 1860s. They also worked as laborers in Western mines. They suffered racial discrimination at every level of White society. Many Americans were stirred to anger by the "Yellow Peril" rhetoric. Despite provisions for equal treatment of Chinese immigrants in the 1868 Burlingame Treaty between the U.S. and China, political and labor organizations rallied against "cheap Chinese labor".
Charles Goodall Lee was an American dentist and the first licensed Chinese American dentist in California. Lee financed the construction of the Chinese American Citizens Alliance lodge in Oakland, California. He graduated from the School of Dentistry at the University of the Pacific.
Judith "Judy" Yung was a librarian, community activist, historian and professor emerita in American Studies at the University of California, Santa Cruz. She specialized in oral history, women's history, and Asian American history. She died on December 14, 2020, in San Francisco, where she had returned in 2018.
The Hip Sing Association or HSA, formerly known as the Hip Sing Tong, is a Chinese-American criminal organization/gang formed as a labor organization in New York City's Chinatown during the early 20th century. The Cantonese name "Hip Sing" translates roughly to "cooperating for success." The Hip Sing Tong, along with their rivals the Four Brothers and the On Leong Tong, would be involved in violent Tong wars for control of Chinatown during the early 1900s. During the 1930s and 1940s, the Hip Sings were involved in drug trafficking operations with the Kuomintang (KMT) and later the Office of Policy Coordination (OPC). They would later establish chapters in Chinese-American communities throughout the United States in major cities such as Chicago, Seattle and San Francisco. Recently some branches have begun to transform back into the legitimate fraternal organization they started as over a century prior.
Him Mark Lai was a historian of Chinese American, a leader of the Chinese-American community, and writer. He helped restore the state of Chinese American historiography. Lai "rescued, collected, catalogued, preserved and shared" historical sources in Chinese and English. He was known as the "Dean of Chinese American history" by his academic peers, despite the fact that he was professionally trained as a mechanical engineer with no advanced training in the academic field of history. The Chronicle of Higher Education named Lai "the scholar who legitimized the study of Chinese America".
The Chinese Community Center at 60-64 Mott Street is home to both the Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association (CCBA), the oldest Chinese community service organization of Chinatown established in 1883, and New York Chinese School, established in 1909 for children who came from overseas; both are located in the same Manhattan Chinatown building in New York City. The building itself is considered a Chinatown "town hall". Both the New York Chinese School and the CCBA are affiliated.
La Chinesca is a neighborhood located in the Mexican city of Mexicali. The location is home to about 15,000 people of Chinese origin, historically the largest Chinese community in Mexico. While this number does not compare to other cities worldwide with a prominent Chinese diaspora, early in the 20th century Mexicali was numerically and culturally more Chinese than other immigrant groups. The Chinese arrived to the area as laborers for the Colorado River Land Company, an American enterprise which designed and built an extensive irrigation system in the Valley of Mexicali. Some immigrants came from the United States, often fleeing anti-Chinese policies there, while others sailed directly from China.
The Tong Wars were a series of violent disputes beginning in the late 19th century among rival Chinese Tong factions centered in the Chinatowns of various American cities, in particular San Francisco. Tong wars could be triggered by a variety of inter-gang grievances, from the public besmirching of another Tong's honor, to failure to make full payment for a "slave girl", to the murder of a rival Tong member. Each Tong had salaried soldiers, known as boo how doy, who fought in Chinatown alleys and streets over the control of opium, prostitution, gambling, and territory.
As of 2012, 21.4% of the population in San Francisco was of Chinese descent, and there were at least 150,000 Chinese American residents. The Chinese are the largest Asian American subgroup in San Francisco. San Francisco has the highest percentage of residents of Chinese descent of any major U.S. city, and the second largest Chinese American population, after New York City. The San Francisco Area is 7.9% Chinese American, with many residents in Oakland and Santa Clara County. San Francisco's Chinese community has ancestry mainly from Guangdong province, China and Hong Kong, although there is a sizable population of ethnic Chinese with ancestry from other parts of mainland China and Taiwan as well.
The Chicago metropolitan area has an ethnic Chinese population. As of 2010, there are 43,228 Chinese Americans who live in Chicago, 1.6% of the city's population. This population includes native-born Chinese as well as immigrants from Mainland China, Taiwan, Hong Kong and Southeast Asia, and also racially mixed Chinese.
Historically there has been a population of Chinese Americans in Los Angeles and the Los Angeles Metropolitan Area. As of 2010, there were 393,488 Chinese Americans in Los Angeles County, 4.0% of the county's population, and 66,782 Chinese Americans in the city of Los Angeles.
The history of Chinese Canadians in British Columbia began with the first recorded visit by Chinese people to North America in 1788. Some 30–40 men were employed as shipwrights at Nootka Sound in what is now British Columbia, to build the first European-type vessel in the Pacific Northwest, named the North West America. Large-scale immigration of Chinese began seventy years later with the advent of the Fraser Canyon Gold Rush of 1858. During the gold rush, settlements of Chinese grew in Victoria and New Westminster and the "capital of the Cariboo" Barkerville and numerous other towns, as well as throughout the colony's interior, where many communities were dominantly Chinese. In the 1880s, Chinese labour was contracted to build the Canadian Pacific Railway. Following this, many Chinese began to move eastward, establishing Chinatowns in several of the larger Canadian cities.
China Slough, is historical site in Sacramento, California. The site of the former China Slough is California Historical Landmark No. 594, registered on May 22, 1957. The site of California Historical Landmark China Slough is the northeast corner of 4th Street and I Street in Sacramento at about 401 I Street. Before the China Slough was filled in, the waterway ran from 3rd Street to 5th Streets to north of I Street in Sacramento. The site became the Central Pacific Railroad Sacramento station built in 1910. The 1910 station had a wooden Trestle bridge built over the China Slough. A new depot was built nearby, the Sacramento Valley Station in 1926 and is now operated by Amtrak. The China Slough ran almost where the current Amtrak train tracks run today.
The [Chinese] Six Companies, organized in the 1850s and formally established in 1882, were an amalgamation of the six most important Chinese organizations, or "district associations," in California at the time: the Sam Yup, Yeung Wo, Kong Chow, Ning Yuen, Hop Wo, and Yan Wo.
New Rules of the Yeung-Wo Ui-Kun (1854)