San Francisco
History
Upon their arrival during the California gold rush, Chinese immigrants felt the government in Gold Mountain did not protect their interests. To protect and support one another, these Chinese pioneers from the Pearl River Delta formed the Sze Yup and Sam Yap associations in San Francisco's Chinatown. With more Chinese immigrants from other districts, who spoke different dialects, two more associations formed in 1852, followed by two more splitting off Sze Yup. [3] These organizations became the six most important Chinese district associations in California. [8] The associations had some mutual coordination [9] before the CCBA was established, in 1882. [3] [10]
These immigrant organizations were rooted in the Chinese tradition of huiguan (traditional Chinese :會館; simplified Chinese :会馆; pinyin :huìguǎn; Jyutping :wui6gun2), [11] viz., support groups for merchants and workers originating from a given area. The vast majority of Chinese in California were from various districts on the west side of the Pearl River Delta, in Guangdong province. Thus, the first huiguan, or ui-kun, as it was locally known [12] in Cantonese San Francisco, the Sam Yap (Chinese :三邑; pinyin :sānyì; Jyutping :sam1 jap1; lit.'Three counties') Company, emerged in 1851. It was associated with the Nanhai, Panyu, Shunde, Sanshui, and Xingyun districts. [13] Towards the end of 1851, the Sze Yap (Chinese :四邑; pinyin :Sìyì; Jyutping :sei3 jap1; lit.'Four Counties') company of Xinhui, Kaiping, Xinning, and Enping districts was created. [13] This was followed by the Yeong Wo (Chinese :陽 和) company of Heung-shan, Tung-kun, and Tsang-shing districts, in 1852; [14] and the Hip Kat company, formed by Hakka immigrants from Bow On, Chak Tai, Tung Gwoon, and Chu Mui districts, in 1852. [13] In this manner, "Chinese in California had become organized into four regional dialect groupings" [3] : 17 or, as locally known, "four Ooe-Koons, or great Chinese houses of San Francisco". [15]
Owing to internal disputes in the large Sze Yup company, the Ning Yung (Chinese :寧 陽) company emerged in 1853, and the Hop Wo (Chinese :合 和) company split off in 1862. [3] In 1867, the twice-reduced Sze Yup was reorganized as the Kong Chow (Chinese :岡 州) company. [16] [17] Friction within the Hop Wo company led to the formation of the Sue Hing (Chinese :肇 慶) company in 1878. [3] : 18
The Six Companies served as ambassadors of the Qing government, which did not have a consulate in Chinatown until the end of the 1870s, and provided services for arriving Chinese immigrants and workers in San Francisco. [18] : 42 Their early efforts included deterring prostitution in the Chinese community, encouraging Chinese immigrants to lead moral lives, and discouraging excessive Chinese immigration, which was causing hostility towards them. [19] The Six Companies also created a safety net for sick Chinese workers, by lending them money. They opened a Chinese-language school, settled disputes among members, maintained a Chinese census, and helped members send remittances to their home villages through district associations. [20] In 1875, they endorsed the position that continued Chinese immigration caused a general lowering of wages for both whites and Chinese in America. [21]
One of the most important roles of the CCBA was that of defender and sometimes litigator of civil rights. For example, they hired police officers to watch over Chinese businesses and properties in San Francisco. They also hired White lawyers to help them fight anti-Chinese legislation on the city, state, and federal levels. [18] The 1898 landmark case of Wong Kim Ark, which established US citizenship for American-born children of Chinese parents, was successfully argued in the US Supreme Court with the assistance of legal representation from the CCBA. [22] : 67
Immigration in the 1960s
Though the Six Companies discouraged the continuing immigration of Chinese to the US, the phenomenon persisted. In the 1960s, discrimination began to arise within these Chinese communities. Assimilation of Chinese communities increased through the years, causing a cultural clash between new arrivals and those who were American-born and had assimilated to the culture. Many new Chinese immigrants came to America without savings, as most of their money was spent on transportation to the US. Many immigrant children were also affected by these conditions, having to work when they were not in school, and struggling to learn English. This led to many of the children of new immigrants dropping out and joining gangs that engaged in violence in Chinatown. In 1968, during a human rights commission hearing held in San Francisco, the Wah Ching gang asked for a community clubhouse and a two-year program to help them gain vocational skills and earn high school diplomas. The CCBA advised the commission: "They have not shown that they are sorry or that they will change their ways. They have threatened the community. If you give in to this group, you are only going to have another hundred immigrants come in and have a whole new series of threats and demands." [23]
In 2022, the first female CCBA president, head of the Yan Wo company, was installed. [24]
