American Red Cross

Last updated

American Red Cross
FormationMay 21, 1881;143 years ago (1881-05-21)
Founder Clara Barton
Type Charitable organization
53-0196605
Legal statusInstrumentality of the United States and a body corporate and politic [1] [2] 501(c)(3) organization
Purpose Humanitarian aid
Headquarters American Red Cross National Headquarters
Location
Region served
United States
Key people
Main organ
Board of Governors
RevenueUS$3.4 billion (2022) [4]
Website www.redcross.org

The American National Red Cross [5] is a nonprofit humanitarian organization that provides emergency assistance, disaster relief, and disaster preparedness education in the United States. Clara Barton founded the organization in 1881 after initially learning of the Red Cross from the country of Switzerland. Barton resigned in 1904 with Mabel Thorp Boardman taking control soon after. It is the designated US affiliate of the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies and the United States movement to the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement.

Contents

The organization is involved with and responsible for the aftercare of notable disasters, such as the sinking of the RMS Titanic in 1912, World War I, the Spanish flu pandemic of 1918, World War II, Hurricane Katrina, and the Maui wildfires of 2023.

The American Red Cross offers services and development programs such as blood donations, plasma and tissue services, and additional research. [6] It has also had a long-standing relationship with the US military, providing emergency and non-emergency services, including family communications and recreation.

History and organization

American Red Cross workplace, Memphis TN, c. 1898 AMERICAN RED CROSS workroom at Pau 16304v.jpg
American Red Cross workplace, Memphis TN, c. 1898
     
American Red Cross WWI poster 1917 Red Cross World War I poster.jpg
American Red Cross WWI poster
     
U.S. stamp commemorating Red Cross 50th anniversary, issue of 1931 American Red Cross issue, 1931.jpg
U.S. stamp commemorating Red Cross 50th anniversary, issue of 1931

Founders

Clara Barton established the American Red Cross in Dansville, New York, on May 21, 1881, and was also the organization's first president. She organized a meeting on May 12 of that year at the house of Senator Omar D. Conger (R, MI). [7] Fifteen people were present at the meeting, Conger and Representative William Lawrence (R, OH) (who became the first vice president) to discuss the start of the American Red Cross. [8] [9] The first local chapter was established in 1881 at the English Evangelical Lutheran Church of Dansville. [10] [11] [12]

Jane Delano (1862–1919) founded the American Red Cross Nursing Service on January 20, 1910. [13]

Clara Barton

Barton founded the American chapter after learning of the Red Cross in Geneva, Switzerland. In 1869, she went to Europe and became involved in the work of the International Red Cross during the Franco-Prussian War. She was determined to bring the organization to America. [14] [15]

Clara Barton, founder of the American Red Cross Clara Barton1.jpg
Clara Barton, founder of the American Red Cross

Barton became President of the American branch of the society, known as the American National Red Cross in May 1881 in Washington. The first chapters opened in upstate New York, where she had connections. [16] [15] John D. Rockefeller and four others donated money to help create a national headquarters near the White House. [17] The abolitionist Frederick Douglass, a friend of Barton's, offered advice and support as she sought to establish the American chapter of Red Cross. As Register of Deeds for the District of Columbia, Douglass also signed the American Red Cross's original Articles of Incorporation.[ citation needed ]

American Red Cross Administrative Headquarters in Washington, D.C. American Red Cross Administrative Headquarters.JPG
American Red Cross Administrative Headquarters in Washington, D.C.

The next major disaster was the Johnstown Flood on May 31, 1889. Over 2,209 people died, and thousands more were injured in or near Johnstown, Pennsylvania, in one of the worst disasters in U.S. history. [18]

ARC Clipper Circa 1970 The Hospital Clipper Vol. 4 No. 4, June 1970 (IA hospitalclipper45197007).pdf
ARC Clipper Circa 1970

Progressive reform

Many within the organization became frustrated with Barton's leadership style, and Barton resigned from the organization in 1904. [19]

Professional social work experts took control and made the group a model of Progressive Era scientific reform. [20] New leader Mabel Thorp Boardman consulted with senior government officials, military officers, social workers, and financiers. William Howard Taft was especially influential. They imposed an ethos of "managerialism", transforming the agency from Barton's cult of personality to an "organizational humanitarianism" ready for expansion. [21]

Among the notable disasters of the Progressive Era that featured American Red Cross involvement was the sinking of the RMS Titanic in 1912. The New York City chapter joined with the Charity Organization Society to provide funds to survivors and the dependents of those who perished. [22]

During World War Two, the American Red Cross ran the Booker T Washington Service Club in Sydney, Australia.

Leadership

Recent presidents and CEO s include Gail J. McGovern, Cliff Holtz, Elizabeth Dole, Bernadine Healy, Mary S. Elcano, Mark W. Everson and John F. McGuire. [23] In 2007, U.S. legislation clarified the role for the Board of Governors and that of the senior management in the wake of difficulties following Hurricane Katrina. [24] Members of the board of governors other than the chairman are elected at the annual meeting of chapter delegates. The board appoints the chief executive officer. [25] The president and CEOs' overall goal is to execute the Red Cross' strategies and missions to lead and oversee the business activities that the Red Cross partakes in or organizes.

Ranking

ARC Wilmington, Delaware American Red Cross Headquarters, Delaware Avenue, Wilmington, Del (72640).jpg
ARC Wilmington, Delaware

As of April 2023, the American Red Cross scores four out of four stars at Charity Navigator [26] and A− at CharityWatch. [27]

In 1996, the Chronicle of Philanthropy , an industry magazine, released the results of the largest study of charitable and nonprofit organization popularity and credibility. The study showed that ARC was ranked as the third "most popular charity/non-profit in America" of over 100 charities researched, with 48% of Americans over age 12 choosing "Love" or "Like A lot" to describe it. [28]

Notable members

Blood services

Blood donation

ARC supplies roughly 45% of the donated blood in the United States, which it sells to hospitals and regional suppliers. [39] Community-based blood centers supply nearly 50% and approximately 5% is collected directly by hospitals. [40] In December 2004, ARC completed its largest blood processing facility in the United States in Pomona, California, on the campus grounds of California State Polytechnic University, Pomona.[ citation needed ]

Tissue services

For more than 50 years, ARC provided allograft tissue for transplant through sales in its Tissue Services Program. It cared for thousands of donor families who donated tissue and sold the tissue to more than 1 million transplant recipients. At the end of January 2005, ARC ended its Tissue Services program to focus on its primary missions of Disaster Relief and Blood Services.[ citation needed ]

Plasma services

A leader in the plasma industry, ARC provides more than one quarter of the USA's plasma products. Red Cross Plasma Services are plasma products that have a reputation of being reliable, cost-effective and as safe as possible.[ citation needed ]

In February 1999, ARC completed its "Transformation", a $287 million program that re engineered Red Cross Blood Services' processing, testing, and distribution system and established a new management structure.[ citation needed ]

As of 2011, ARC was no longer in the Plasma Services industry. It supplies Baxter BioSciences with items for manufacturing plasma products. [41]

Nucleic acid testing

On March 1, 1999, ARC became the first U.S. blood bank to implement a nucleic acid testing (NAT) study. This process is different from traditional testing because it looks for the genetic material of HIV and hepatitis C (HCV), rather than the body's response to the disease.[ citation needed ]

The NAT tests for HIV and HCV has been licensed by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). These tests detect the genetic material of a transfusion-transmitted virus like HIV without waiting for the body to form antibodies, potentially offering an important time advantage over current techniques.[ citation needed ]

Leukoreduction

Letter of American Red Cross Letter from the American Red Cross showing where donation was sent.jpg
Letter of American Red Cross
Houston Astrodome, a major ARC location in Texas Reliant Astrodome in January 2014 b.jpg
Houston Astrodome, a major ARC location in Texas

Leukocytes (white blood cells) help fight off foreign substances such as bacteria, viruses, and abnormal cells. In fact, these foreign leukocytes in transfused red blood cells and platelets are often not well tolerated and have been associated with some types of transfusion complications. Leukocytes in stored blood products can have a variety of biological effects, including depression of immune function, which can result in organ failure and death. [42] Because whole blood is rarely used for transfusion and not kept in routine inventory, leukoreduced red blood supplies are critical. After collection, the whole blood is separated into red cells and plasma by centrifugal. A preservative solution is mixed with the red cells and the component is filtered with a leukoreduction filter. The shelf life of this product is 42 days.[ citation needed ]

ARC is moving toward system-wide universal prestorage leukocyte reduction to improve patient care. From 1976 to 1985, the FDA received reports of 355 fatalities associated with transfusion, 99 of which were excluded from further review because they were unrelated to transfusion or involved hepatitis or HIV/AIDS. [43] While the FDA has not yet made leukoreduction a requirement, ARC took a leading role in implementing this procedure with a goal of leukoreducing all blood products. More than 70% of ARC red blood cell components undergo prestorage leukoreduction, a filtering process performed soon after blood is donated.[ citation needed ]

Research

ARC operates the Jerome H. Holland blood laboratory in Rockville, Maryland. [44] [45]

Cellular therapies

American Red Cross hospital train in Dallas, 1919 American Red Cross - War Work - Red Cross Building in Washington dedicated. Photo shows a field kitchen and Red Cross nurses, part of the parade held in Washington at the dedication of American Red Cross headquar(...) - NARA - 20803272.jpg
American Red Cross hospital train in Dallas, 1919

ARC offers various cellular therapies; these treatments involve collecting and treating blood cells from a patient or other blood donor. The treated cells are introduced into a patient to help revive normal cell function, replace cells that are lost as a result of disease, accidents or aging, or to prevent illnesses from appearing. The ARC has implemented technology from Accellix, a biotechnology company specializing in automated cell phenotyping, in order to help meet the increasing demand and need for various cell and gene therapies. The ARC continues to work on further expanding their help and participation in cellular therapies and are always looking for donors who are willing and able to contribute to their mission. [46]

Training services

Training Services is one of the five divisions of the American Red Cross, responsible for providing health and safety training to the general public as well as the workforce. In fiscal year 2017 the American Red Cross trained 2.28 million people how to save lives through their First Aid, CPR or AED courses, water safety and care giving programs. There are a wide variety of course offerings available: [47]

In addition to basic level certifications in the above courses, the American Red Cross also offers Instructor level courses and Instructor Trainer (IT) level courses. Instructor level courses are designed to teach participants how to become instructors for American Red Cross courses, whereas Instructor Trainer courses (also known as Instructor Trainer Academies) are designed to certify current instructors to become Instructor Trainers, or people who can teach Instructor level courses.[ citation needed ]

Training Services has an online store where you can purchase supplies including First Aid Kits, CPR key chains, flashlights, and emergency radios. [48]

2018 mannequin change

In early 2018 all courses offered by the American Red Cross switched to Brayden/BigRed Manikins. The investment cost $1.8 million and increased participants' understanding of the purpose of compressions during CPR. These Manikins have LED lights that mimic blood flow through the body and to the brain, giving students instant visual feedback on their technique.

Course offerings

There are three entities that can run American Red Cross courses; The American Red Cross, Authorized Providers, and Licensed Training Providers. [49] The American Red Cross runs many of its own courses that can be conducted on land such as First Aid/CPR/AED and Basic Life Support for Healthcare Providers. There are a number of courses that require aquatic facilities to run, such as Lifeguarding and Water Safety Instructor. These courses are generally left to Authorized Providers (colleges, government agencies, fire departments, community centers) and to Licensed Training Providers (LLC. or Inc.).[ citation needed ]

Scientific Advisory Council

The Scientific Advisory Council is a panel including over 50 nationally recognized medical, scientific, aquatics, and academic experts from across the United States. [50]

Disaster services

American Red Cross providing assistance during the 1994 Northridge earthquake FEMA - 2332 - Photograph by Robert A. Eplett taken on 01-17-1994 in California.jpg
American Red Cross providing assistance during the 1994 Northridge earthquake
An American Red Cross vehicle distributing food to Grand Forks, North Dakota victims of the 1997 Red River flood GF1997RedCross.jpg
An American Red Cross vehicle distributing food to Grand Forks, North Dakota victims of the 1997 Red River flood
Satellite communications after Tropical Storm Debby in Lake City, Florida, 2012 FEMA - 58087 - Photo by George Armstrong taken on 07-09-2012 in Florida.jpg
Satellite communications after Tropical Storm Debby in Lake City, Florida, 2012

Each year, ARC responds to more than 60,000 disasters, including house or apartment fires (making up the majority), hurricanes, floods, earthquakes, tornadoes, hazardous materials spills, transportation accidents, explosions and other natural and man-made disasters.[ citation needed ]

Although ARC is not a government agency, its authority to provide disaster relief was formalized when, in 1905, it was granted a congressional charter to "carry on a system of national and international relief in time of peace and apply the same in mitigating the sufferings caused by pestilence, famine, fire, floods, and other great national calamities, and to devise and carry on measures for preventing the same." The charter is not only a grant of power but also an imposition of duties and obligations to the nation, to disaster victims and to the people who support its work with their donations.[ citation needed ]

Disaster relief focuses on emergency disaster-caused needs. When a disaster threatens or strikes, ARC provides shelter, food and health and mental health services (Psychological First Aid) to address basic human needs. The core of American Red Cross disaster relief is assistance to individuals and families to enable them to resume their normal daily activities. The organization provides translation and interpretation when necessary, and maintains a database of multilingual volunteers. [51]

At the local level, ARC chapters operate volunteer-staffed Disaster Action Teams.[ citation needed ]

ARC feeds emergency workers of other agencies, handles inquiries from concerned family members outside the disaster area, provides blood and blood products to disaster victims and helps those affected by a disaster to access other resources. It is a member of National Voluntary Organizations Active in Disaster (VOAD) and works closely with other agencies such as Salvation Army and Amateur Radio Emergency Service with whom it has memorandums of understanding.[ citation needed ]

ARC works to encourage preparedness by providing important literature on readiness. Many chapters also offer free classes to the general public. [52]

A major misconception among the general public is that ARC provides medical facilities, engages in search and rescue operations or deploys ambulances. Instead, first responder roles are left to government agencies as dictated by the National Response Framework. Red Cross societies outside the U.S. may provide such functions; for example, the Cruz Roja Mexicana (Mexican Red Cross) runs a national ambulance service. Furthermore, American Red Cross Emergency Response Vehicles (ERVs) look similar to ambulances. [53] These ERVs instead are designed for bulk distribution of relief supplies, such as meals, drinks and other relief supplies. Although ARC shelters usually assign a nurse to the facility, they are not equipped to provide medical care beyond first aid.[ citation needed ]

Disaster Services Workforce

The Disaster Services Workforce (DSW) system enrolls volunteers from ARC chapters into a national database of responders, classified by their ability to serve in one or more activities within groups. Services include feeding and sheltering ("mass care") warehousing, damage assessment, accounting, communications, public affairs, counseling and others. Responders complete training for the specific services they want to offer, first aid and CPR.[ citation needed ]

National Response Framework

As a National Response Framework [54] support agency, ARC shelters, feeds and provides other types of emergency relief to victims of disasters. ARC is a co-lead with the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) for the mass care portion of Emergency Support Function 6. ARC and FEMA share responsibility for planning and coordinating mass care services with FEMA. ARC has responsibilities for other Emergency Support Functions, such as providing health and mental health services. [55] [56]

Disaster responses

1908 Messina earthquake

In 1908 an earthquake and tsunami devastated the area surround the Strait of Messina. The American public donated nearly $1 million to the American Red Cross which was sent to Italy via the State Department, alongside $800,000 in public funds. [57] The decision to use the State Department to distribute funds, rather than sending them directly to the Italian Red Cross, was indicative of the organization's shift away from the International Red Cross movement and towards US interests. [58] This was the ARC's first major response to an international civilian disaster. [57]

In December of that year two Americans, Harry Bowdoin and Charles King Wood, were in Taormina when the earthquake occurred. Mr. Bowdoin was spending the winter in Taormina with his invalid mother and Mr. Wood was an artist who had lived in Taormina for several years. These two men entered upon the work of relief answering the call of the Red Cross.[110] Afterwards, the Italian government conferred upon the two men the honorific of "Cavaliere". Bowdoin and Wood were two of the twenty-one recipients of the American Red Cross silver medal for "specially meritorious service" for that year.

Before 1908, the U.S. Congress had only rarely allocated funds for natural disasters; likewise, the level of funding given to Italy was also unprecedented. [59] The ARC's aid to Italy carried important diplomatic meaning for the U.S. due to the large number of Italian emigrants who left for the U.S. every year, and Italy's growing importance within Europe. [60] ARC leaders viewed relief efforts in Italy as a way to demonstrate U.S. care for the nation. Alongside this, disaster relief was seen as a tool for social reform. A fundamental goal of the ARC's assistance was to address the perceived threat of pulverization within an area that a large proportion of U.S. immigrants came from. [61]

Role in the United States occupation of Nicaragua

As a response to the Nicaraguan resentment of the United States occupation of Nicaragua, U.S. officials employed the use of humanitarian relief in attempt to improve relations. $10,000 was given to the ARC by Philander Knox to provide relief in the form of blankets, clothing, and food to captured soldiers from José Santos Zelaya's army. [62] ARC leaders believed that humanitarian relief would be more effective in fostering goodwill and creating stability than any other action. In 1912 the State and War Department became concerned with increasing reports of hunger within the country. As a result, Knox asked the ARC to supply food for non-combatants as well. American forces worked with the ARC to open railroads to distribute humanitarian supplies to Managua, Granada, Léon, and other key cities. [63]

Although the ARC was a non-governmental agency, its humanitarian efforts lined up with American foreign policy, becoming a useful diplomatic mechanism for softening the effects of American military intervention and securing its political interests. [64]

Role in World War One

Prior to the United States entry into World War One, the American Red Cross was a neutral organization aiding both the allied and central powers. [65] However, when the United States joined the allied powers, the American Red Cross aid to the central powers ended immediately. On May 10, 1917, President Wilson created the American Red Cross War Council to aid funding initiatives and direct the activities of the organization. Throughout the war, the Council raised $400 million.[ citation needed ]

The American Red Cross in the war was a quasi-state organization and a non-governmental organization, as it was not officially part of the United States Government. The American Red Cross in the war focused principally on overseas civilian aid and not domestic disaster relief. The American Red Cross spent "less than one million dollars on domestic disaster relief, in comparison to the $120 million devoted to relief overseas. [66] " The American Red Cross during the war provided food, employment, housing, and medical assistance to millions of civilians displaced by the war. During the course of the war, over one-third of the population of the United States joined the organization and in 1917 and 1918 alone around $400 million was raised. [67] Amongst its initiatives was the Pisa Village in Italy, a humanitarian housing project, begun in 1918,[ citation needed ] and manufacture of "500,000 dressings" to treat wounds using use of Sphagnum moss in place of cotton, based on the research of John William Hotson. [68] [69]

The power of the American Red Cross was soon recognized by the Government which began to see "the value of overseas aid as a tool of statecraft". [70] The American Red Cross was increasingly being used as an arm of the state to facilitate the realization of American foreign policy objects. Principally, the American Red Cross enhanced America's image abroad while also disseminating American practices and values throughout Europe. [70] It intervened in European health and welfare practices by introducing American methods. Moreover, after the Bolsheviks seized power in Russia, President Wilson used the American Red Cross as a diplomacy tool to aid the White forces. Wilson believed that food was the "real thing" to combat Bolshevism and ordered the American Red Cross to distribute food and material relief to Bolshevik opponents in the Russian civil war. [71] The American Red Cross, therefore, served the dual functions of assisting the realization of United States foreign policy objectives and promoting international humanitarianism.[ citation needed ]

At the end of the war the League of Red Cross Societies was created. This international society of national Red Cross organizations was spearheaded by the United States and sought the "improvement of health, the prevention of disease, and the mitigation of suffering throughout the world." [72]

Role in Spanish Flu Outbreak of 1918

During the flu pandemic of 1918, American Red Cross chapters were instrumental in establishing both preventive measures and treatment plans within their local communities throughout the United States. The degree to which the Red Cross was involved with pandemic planning was largely dependent on the needs of the community and the actions of local public health authorities, but large cities and their surrounding communities were often dependent on the organization in mitigating the spread of the disease. [73]

Active initiatives undertaken by local chapters included the sewing of masks for local distribution, the production and promotion of educational pamphlets, the establishment of localized motor corps, and providing door-to-door nursing and social services. In some cities, the motor corps functioned both in providing auxiliary ambulatory services and expanding the logistical dispersion of manpower and supplies. The contribution of nurses, goods, services, and local administrative guidance offered by the American Red Cross provided local community leaders with essential support in combating the pandemic. [73]

Interwar European reconstruction

An American Red Cross Ship in Greece c. 1920-1925 Loading A.R.C. (American Red Cross) ships at Piraeus LCCN2014716078.jpg
An American Red Cross Ship in Greece c. 1920–1925

Unlike European relief organization, which had to invest much of their time in fund-raising efforts, the American Red Cross's collaboration with Herbert Hoover's American Relief Administration had funding on a different scale and well as popular and governmental support at its disposal. [74] With its membership of over 33 million Americans in 1918 (20% of the U.S. population) and its designation as the official U.S. organization for foreign relief by the Geneva Treaty and Congressional mandate, the ARC was neither wholly private nor an official governmental organization. [75] This quasi-governmental support allowed the ARC to secure credibility and support that was unattainable for other relief organizations such as the YMCA or Knights of Columbus.[ citation needed ]

The ARC's private funding allowed for more flexibility than government organizations, its leaders chose to support U.S. foreign policy in many ways but also often pursued aims that differed from that of the military or political policymakers. [76] Hundreds of ARC workers pursued permanent reform of Italian social politics, rather than emergency relief they founded nursing schools, developed child welfare projects and waged anti-tuberculosis crusades. [77] In introducing these American ideas about public health and social welfare, the ARC acted as what historian Daniel T. Rodgers had referred to as 'brokers of ideas', who facilitated transatlantic exchange on the methods and philosophies of social reform. [78] Work in the ARC allowed American citizens to contribute to transatlantic social reform discourse. ARC workers built upon and expanded the already existing Italian efforts for social reform. ARC reformers embraced a strategic cultural sensitivity as they attempted to work with Italians and help them to take control of their own social institutions. By presenting their reforms as mutual exchange rather than imposed change, ARC workers hoped Italians would willingly accept them. [79] U.S. reformers in the ARC continued to believe in the necessity of American intervention in 'reforming' Italy.[ citation needed ]

Russian revolution

In July 1918 the ARC established a hospital at the entrance of Vladivostok harbor, followed by eight more hospitals during that year. Vladivostok Refugee hospital was opened in early 1919 in former naval barracks and had up to 250 beds. The ARC provided drugs and medical supplies to Russian hospitals during the civil war. [80]

Role in World War Two

In the 1940s during World War II, the Red Cross enrolled 7.5 million volunteers along with 39,000 paid staff [81] and more than 104,000 nurses [82] for military service, prepared 27 million packages for prisoners of war, shipped more than 300,000 tons of supplies, and collected 13.3 million pints of blood plasma for the armed forces. [83] By the time World War II ended in September 1945, American society contributed over $784 million in support of the American Red Cross. [81]

2005 hurricanes

Volunteers assist Hurricane victims at the Houston Astrodome, following Hurricane Katrina. FEMA - 15337 - Photograph by Andrea Booher taken on 09-10-2005 in Texas.jpg
Volunteers assist Hurricane victims at the Houston Astrodome, following Hurricane Katrina.

Forecasting a major disaster before the landfall of Hurricane Katrina, ARC enlisted 2,000 volunteers to be on a "stand by" deployment list.[ citation needed ]

According to ARC, during and after hurricanes Katrina, Wilma and Rita, they opened 1,470 shelters and registered 3.8 million overnight stays. 300,000 American Red Cross workers (82% unpaid) provided sheltering, casework, communication and assessment services throughout these events. In addition, 346,980 comfort kits (which contain hygiene essentials such as toothpaste, soap, washcloths and toys for children) and 205,360 cleanup kits (containing brooms, mops and bleach) were distributed. The organization served 68 million snacks and meals. Disaster Health services provided 596,810 contacts, and Disaster Mental Health services 826,590 contacts. Emergency financial assistance was provided to 1.4 million families, including 4 million people. Katrina was the first natural disaster in the United States that ARC utilized their "Safe and Well" family location website. [84] [85]

Comair Flight 5191

Following the crash of commuter aircraft Comair Flight 5191, the Bluegrass Area Chapter and ARC Critical Response Team (CRT) members were dispatched. This was the worst air disaster in the United States since American Airlines Flight 587. Family and Friends reception centers were established near the arrival and departure airports and in Cincinnati, site of the Comair headquarters. Local chapters in Georgia, Alabama, Kentucky and California provided health and mental health services to family and friends not present in Lexington. Volunteers also staffed the local Emergency Operations Center (EOC) in Lexington, Kentucky. [86]

2007 tornadoes

ARC is set up in a community hard hit by the tornadoes, Florida, 2007. FEMA - 28112 - Photograph by Mark Wolfe taken on 02-06-2007 in Florida.jpg
ARC is set up in a community hard hit by the tornadoes, Florida, 2007.

Florida

In response to the Central Florida Tornado of February 2007, ARC began a large scale disaster relief operation. At least seven shelters were opened. 40,000 pre-packaged meals were sent by ARC, and across the nation, almost 400 American Red Cross volunteers were deployed to assist with local relief efforts. The organization deployed more than 30 Emergency Response Vehicles for community food and supply distribution. [87] [88]

Kansas

ARC immediately responded to the May 2007 Tornado Outbreak in central Kansas by setting up emergency shelters for displaced residents and started the distribution of food, water and relief supplies. [89]

Minneapolis bridge collapse

Following the collapse of the I-35W Mississippi River bridge, the Twin Cities Area Chapter responded with their Disaster Action Team to provide food, information and comfort. A family service center was set up, and mental health counselors deployed to numerous locations. [90] Donations contributed for this cause totaled US$138,368 and covered the cost of services [91] but not $65,000 in unexpected expenses. [92] Weather and the collapse placed 70% of Minnesota counties in federal primary or contiguous disaster areas during that August. [93]

2023 Hawaii wildfires

Following the Hawaii wildfires in early August 2023, the ARC began a large-scale disaster relief operation (DRO). More than 1,300 volunteers have been deployed since the fires began. In partnership with the county government, the ARC has been able to provide displaced residents with more than 257,000 overnight emergency shelter and hotel room stays on Maui and Oahu. [94]

International services

ARC, as part of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement and its nearly 100 million volunteers, educates and mobilizes communities to overcome life-threatening vulnerabilities. ARC International Services Department focuses on global health, disaster preparedness and response, Restoring Family Links and international humanitarian law dissemination. ARC is involved with international projects, including the Measles and Rubella Partnership, the migration and refugee crisis, and the Nepal earthquake. [95] [96]

Disaster preparedness and response

ARC international disaster response and preparedness programs provide relief and development assistance to millions of people annually who suffer as a result of natural and human-made disasters. To respond quickly and effectively, ARC has pre-positioned emergency relief supplies in three warehouses managed by the International Federation in Dubai, Malaysia, and Panama that are used to respond to disasters. An Emergency Response Unit (ERU) is another method with which ARC responds to international emergencies. An ERU is made up of trained personnel and pre-packaged equipment that is crucial in responding to sudden, large-scale disasters and emergencies in remote locations. American Red Cross ERUs specialize in providing emergency relief supplies and IT and Telecommunications for American Red Cross response operations. [97]

ARC works with the Red Cross Red Crescent network to aid countries after disasters. ARC provides relief after a request from a country in need and then uses trained disaster responders and relief supplies strategically positioned worldwide to respond immediately. ARC may also provide financial aid to disaster relief efforts using donations given to the organization. The Ebola Outbreak in West Africa, Hurricane Dorian in the Bahamas, and Typhoon Haiyan in the Philippines are some of the international disasters that ARC has responded to. [98]

Flood prevention in the Huai River valley

In 1911, the ARC initiated its first international disaster-prevention project in the Huai River Valley. The ARC hired engineers to redirect the Huai River to prevent the yearly flooding that ruined crops and caused famine. [99] Key engineer within the project, C.D. Jameson, recommended a financial commitment to drainage, flood prevention, and land reclamation which he promised would result in 'the elimination of the suffering, starvation, and degeneration of several millions of people', which would substantially reduce 'unrest and lawlessness'. [100] The plan's ambition to re-engineer the Chinese landscape was representative of the increasingly global ambitions of the ARC and the new direction the organization was taking prior to World War I.[ citation needed ]

Haiti

On January 12, 2010, a magnitude 7.0 Mw earthquake struck the Haitian coast 10 miles from the capital of Port-au-Prince, causing massive damage, more than 200,000 deaths and displacing nearly 2 million people.

As of March 2011, ARC announced it had allocated $314 million for Haiti earthquake relief and recovery. ARC funded recovery projects to provide transitional homes, health services, disaster preparedness, water and sanitation improvements and livelihoods development. It provided funds for school fees for affected families. As of June 2011, ARC had raised approximately $484 million for Haiti relief and recovery efforts. [101]

A series of reports by NPR and ProPublica found that much of the money Americans donated never made it to help people in Haiti and promises to rebuild neighborhoods were never met. [102] [103]

Global health

ARC International Services global health initiatives focus on preventing and combating infectious diseases such as HIV/AIDS and measles on a large scale. Through cost-effective, community-based health interventions, ARC targets people in need and focuses on accessibility and equity of care, community participation, and integration with other community development initiatives, such as water and sanitation projects and food and nutrition programs.[ citation needed ]

An example of ARC International Services health programming is the Measles Initiative, launched in 2001, as a partnership committed to reducing measles deaths globally. The initiative provides technical and financial support to governments and communities on vaccination campaigns and disease surveillance worldwide. Leading these efforts are ARC, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the United Nations Foundation, UNICEF and the World Health Organization. The Measles Initiative has supported vaccination campaigns in more than 60 countries, mostly in Africa and Asia. Since 2001, the initiative has helped vaccinate one billion children in more than 60 developing countries. [104] The initiative supported the distribution of more than 37 million insecticide-treated mosquito nets for malaria prevention, 81 million doses of de-worming medicine, 95 million doses of polio vaccine, and 186 million doses of vitamin A.[ citation needed ]

As of January 1, 2023, the initiative became known as the Measles & Rubella Partnership. The Measles Initiative had been previously renamed in 2012, when the founding members of the organization decided on the inclusion of rubella elimination to the program, changing the name to the Measles and Rubella Initiative. The change to the Measles & Rubella Partnership came after the adoption of the Measles and Rubella Strategic Framework 2030. With the change, new core partners Gavi and the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation have been added. [105]

In December 2006, ARC became a founding partner of the Malaria No More campaign. The campaign was formed by leading non-governmental organizations to inspire individuals, institutions, and organizations in the private sector to support a comprehensive approach to end malaria, a devastating but preventable disease. ARC supported local Red Cross and Red Crescent volunteers in Africa who educated families and communities about malaria prevention and treatment, such as the proper and consistent use of insecticide-treated bed nets. ARC provided technical assistance and capacity-building support to its partners in difficult-to-reach communities.[ citation needed ]

International tracing requests

ARC handles international tracing requests and searches for families who have been separated. This service attempts to re-establish contact between separated family members. Restoring Family Links services provide the exchange of hand-written Red Cross Messages between individuals and their relatives who may be refugees or prisoners of war. At any given time, ARC Restoring Family Links program is handling the aftermath of 20–30 wars and conflicts. The worldwide structure of Red Cross and Red Crescent National Societies and the International Committee of the Red Cross make this service possible. When new information from former Soviet Union archives became available in the 1990s, a special unit was created to handle World War II and Holocaust tracing services.[ citation needed ]

International humanitarian law

ARC International Services educates the American public about the guiding principles of international humanitarian law (IHL) for conduct in warfare as set forth by the Geneva Conventions of 1949. In doing so, ARC International Services provides support to ARC chapters in their IHL dissemination efforts, offering courses and providing instructor training.[ citation needed ]

Service to the Armed Forces

A World War II-era poster encouraged American women to volunteer for the Red Cross as part of the war effort. Poster-red-cross-volunteer-for-victory.jpg
A World War II-era poster encouraged American women to volunteer for the Red Cross as part of the war effort.

ARC provides emergency and non-emergency services to the United States military. The most notable service is emergency family communications, where families can contact the Red Cross to send important family messages (such as a death in the family, or new birth). ARC can also act as a verifying agency. [106] The agency operates call centers to provide these services. [107] ARC works closely with other military societies, such as the Department of Veterans Affairs, to provide other services to service members and their families. ARC is not involved with prisoners of war; these are monitored by the International Committee of the Red Cross, the international body.[ citation needed ]

Carney Airfield, Guadalcanal, Solomon Islands Red Cross girl, August 1944 Carney Airfield, Solomon Islands, Red Cross girl. August 1944.jpg
Carney Airfield, Guadalcanal, Solomon Islands Red Cross girl, August 1944

One criticism of American Red Cross services to the military stems from stories about ARC charging troops during the Second World War and Korean War token fees for "comfort items" such as toothpaste, coffee, donuts, and cigarettes and for off-base food and lodging. The fee suggestion had been made in a letter dated March 1942 from the Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson to Norman H. Davis, the chairman of ARC. The suggestion was that Allied soldiers were being charged money so Americans should be charged too so as to "ensure an equitable distribution among all service personnel of American Red Cross resources". [108] The American Red Cross adopted the Secretary's suggestion as policy. [109]

During World War II, ARC operated the American Red Cross Clubmobile Service to provide servicemen with food, entertainment and "a connection home." In a June 18, 1945, address to Congress, General Dwight D. Eisenhower said of the American Red Cross service in World War II, "The Red Cross, with its clubs for recreation, its coffee and doughnuts in the forward areas, its readiness to meet the needs of the well and to help minister to the wounded has often seemed the friendly hand of this nation, reaching across the sea to sustain its fighting men." [110] An account of one World War II American Red Cross Girl is recorded in Destination Unknown by Kathleen Cox; her mother, LeOna Cox, was recruited to American Red Cross Service by a fellow teacher at Allegheny College. [111] Another account of an American Red Cross World War II worker is related in letters by Evelyn Merritt Welden, compiled in the book How to Play During a War: A Free Spirit's Life in Letters, by her son, Lynne Whelden. [112]

Great Lakes Naval Hospital 1966, Jennie and Terrie Frankel perform for wounded soldiers. Great Lakes Naval Hospital 1966 - American Red Cross - Jennie Frankel and Terrie Frankel perform for wounded soldiers.jpeg
Great Lakes Naval Hospital 1966, Jennie and Terrie Frankel perform for wounded soldiers.

During the Vietnam War 627 American women served in the ARC Supplemental Recreation Overseas Program. At the invitation of the United States Army the "Donut Dollies" provided morale-boosting games to soldiers. Due to the mobility of the UH-1 Iroquois, Vietnam Donut Dollies were able to visit troops in forwarding operating positions. The 2008 documentary film A Touch of Home: The Vietnam War's Red Cross Girls tells the story of these women. ARC also provided services to entertain wounded soldiers at the Great Lakes Naval Hospital during the Vietnam War.[ citation needed ]

In 2011, the Service to the Armed Forces (SAF) unit was reorganized and began receiving $24 million per year from Congress for operating expenses. Along with being downsized there was a consolidation into four regional locations (San Diego, California, Ft. Sill, Oklahoma, Louisville, Kentucky, and Springfield, Massachusetts). In 2012 the first stories began breaking about long call times and the poor quality of response from call takers, [113] [114] along with questions about whether money was being used appropriately. [115] In 2015, the San Diego and Springfield locations were closed because an online option for families was implemented. [116]

Controversies

Johnson & Johnson suit over Red Cross image

The red cross flag. The American Red Cross flag logo. Flag of the Red Cross.svg
The red cross flag. The American Red Cross flag logo.

On August 7, 2007, [117] Johnson & Johnson (J&J) filed suit against ARC over its sub licensing of the International Red Cross image for the production of first aid kits and similar products, which it alleged competed with the company's products. The suit also asked for the destruction of all non-Johnson & Johnson Red Cross Emblem bearing products and demanded that ARC pay punitive damages and J&J's legal fees.

The American Red Cross' position was that it had licensed its name to first aid kit makers in an effort to encourage readiness for disasters and that license revenues supported humanitarian work. [118] J&J claimed that the American Red Cross's commercial ventures were outside the scope of historically well-agreed usage and were in direct violation of federal statutes. [119]

On May 14, 2008, a federal judge ruled against J&J. [120] In June 2008, the two organizations announced a settlement had been reached allowing both parties to use the symbol. [121]

The FDA took court action against ARC in response to deficiencies in their procedures for ensuring blood supply safety. The resulting consent decree outlines violations of federal law that ARC engaged in before 1993. [122] ARC paid millions of dollars in fines.[ citation needed ]

ARC Biomedical Services instituted a standardized computer system to maintain the blood donor database; five National Testing Laboratories (NTLs) that test some six million units of blood annually; [123] the Charles Drew Biomedical Institute, which provides training and other educational resources to Red Cross Blood Services' personnel; a Quality Assurance/Regulatory Affairs Department, which helps to ensure regulatory compliance; and, a centrally managed blood inventory system.[ citation needed ]

The consent decree was amended in 2003 with penalties for specific violations.[ citation needed ]

The FDA could impose penalties after April, 2003 up to the following maximum amounts:[ citation needed ]

The FDA continued to apply pressure and fines to ARC in order to enforce compliance with regulations, including a $1.7 million fine in June 2008. [124]

ARC worked closely with the FDA to develop a more robust system. The systems resulted in a five-year period of sustained compliance that led to the release from the Consent Decree as of December 4, 2015. [125]

Blood donation controversy

ARC faced criticism from lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and queer (LGBTQ+) advocacy organizations for prohibiting men who have sex with men (MSM) from donating blood. This policy was an FDA requirement for all blood collection companies and organizations in the United States. Specifically, the FDA instructs blood collection organizations to "defer for 12 months from the most recent sexual contact, a man who has had sex with another man during the past 12 months". [126] Consequently, ARC was legally unable to collect blood from such men. In 2006, along with the AABB and America's Blood Centers, ARC petitioned the FDA to remove the requirement from blood donations, citing better screening technologies. [127] [128] In August 2020, the American Red Cross reported on its website that its deferral of MSM from donating blood for 3 months after any sexual contact with another man is aligned with the newly updated guidance issued by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. [129] Then in May 2023, the FDA approved a policy to allow "monogamous gay and bi men (MSM) to finally donate blood immediately" - however would take some time to fully implement across the whole United States of America. An automatic 3-month deferred period still continually applies to non-monogamous individuals, regardless of sexual orientation, who have anal sex. [130]

Hurricane Katrina controversy

In March, 2006, investigations of allegations of fraud and theft by volunteers and contractors within ARC Katrina operations were launched by the Louisiana Attorney-General and the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). [131] In response, ARC increased its internal and external education of the organization's fraud and a waste hotline for confidential reporting to a third-party agency.[ citation needed ] The organization also elected to implement a background check policy for all volunteers and staff, starting in 2006. [132]

In April 2006, an unnamed former ARC official leaked reports made by the International Committee of the Red Cross and the British Red Cross. Such reports are typical of a large-scale disaster relief operation involving other national Red Cross societies to solicit their input, but are usually confidential and not released to the general public. These particular reports were particularly critical of ARC operations in Katrina-affected regions, although the British Red Cross report strongly praised ARC volunteers for their efforts.[ citation needed ]

Question of spending in Haitian earthquake relief

After the 2010 Haiti earthquake, the Red Cross raised $490 million in relief donations. [133] The charts put to the press claim that a substantial amount was spent in the years following, but first-person accounts share another story. [134] As of 2015, a total of six homes were built. [135]

Storms controversy (Hurricane Sandy, Isaac, other major storms)

In October 2014, independent public interest news broadcasters NPR and ProPublica published investigative reports on the Red Cross's handling of US East Coast Hurricanes Sandy and Isaac, citing internal Red Cross documents and interviews with former Red Cross and government officials. It criticized the organization's response in failing to meet the immediate needs of victims. It also described "an organization so consumed with public relations that it hindered the charity's ability to provide disaster services." [136] [137] [138]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement</span> International humanitarian movement

The organized International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement is a humanitarian movement with approximately 16 million volunteers, members, and staff worldwide. It was founded to protect human life and health, to ensure respect for all human beings, and to prevent and alleviate human suffering.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Humanitarianism</span> Relief activities to aid and assist humanity; philanthropic philosophy of active humanism

Humanitarianism is an ideology centered on the value of human life, whereby humans practice benevolent treatment and provide assistance to other humans to reduce suffering and improve the conditions of humanity for moral, altruistic, and emotional reasons.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">CARE International</span> International humanitarian agency

CARE is a major international humanitarian agency delivering emergency relief and long-term international development projects. Founded in 1945, CARE is nonsectarian, impartial, and non-governmental. It is one of the largest and oldest humanitarian aid organizations focused on fighting global poverty. In 2019, CARE reported working in 104 countries, supporting 1,349 poverty-fighting projects and humanitarian aid projects, and reaching over 92.3 million people directly and 433.3 million people indirectly.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Humanitarian aid</span> Material or logistical assistance for people in need

Humanitarian aid is material and logistic assistance, usually in the short-term, to people in need. Among the people in need are the homeless, refugees, and victims of natural disasters, wars, and famines. The primary objective of humanitarian aid is to save lives, alleviate suffering, and maintain human dignity.

The Canadian Red Cross Society is a Canadian humanitarian charitable organization, and one of 192 national Red Cross and Red Crescent societies. The organization receives funding from both private donations and from Canadian government departments.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Humanitarian crisis</span> Large threat to the health and safety of many people

A humanitarian crisis is defined as a singular event or a series of events that are threatening in terms of health, safety or well-being of a community or large group of people. It may be an internal or external conflict and usually occurs throughout a large land area. Local, national and international responses are necessary in such events.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">LDS Humanitarian Services</span> Charitable services within the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints

Latter-day Saint Charities is a branch of the welfare department of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. The organization's stated mission is to relieve suffering, to foster self-reliance for people of all nationalities and religions, and to provide opportunities for service.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Emergency management</span> Dealing with all humanitarian aspects of emergencies

Emergency management is a science and a system charged with creating the framework within which communities reduce vulnerability to hazards and cope with disasters. Emergency management, despite its name, does not actually focus on the management of emergencies; emergency management or disaster management can be understood as minor events with limited impacts and are managed through the day-to-day functions of a community. Instead, emergency management focuses on the management of disasters, which are events that produce more impacts than a community can handle on its own. The management of disasters tends to require some combination of activity from individuals and households, organizations, local, and/or higher levels of government. Although many different terminologies exist globally, the activities of emergency management can be generally categorized into preparedness, response, mitigation, and recovery, although other terms such as disaster risk reduction and prevention are also common. The outcome of emergency management is to prevent disasters and where this is not possible, to reduce their harmful impacts.

The British Red Cross Society is the United Kingdom body of the worldwide neutral and impartial humanitarian network the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement. The society was formed in 1870, and is a registered charity with more than 17,200 volunteers and 3,400 staff. At the heart of their work is providing help to people in crisis, both in the UK and overseas. The Red Cross is committed to helping people without discrimination, regardless of their ethnic origin, nationality, political beliefs or religion. Queen Elizabeth II was the patron of the society until her death in 2022, and was replaced by her successor King Charles III, who previously served as president between 2003 and 2024.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Disaster response</span> Second phase of the disaster management cycle

Disaster response refers to the actions taken directly before, during, or immediately after a disaster. The objective is to save lives, ensure health and safety, and meet the subsistence needs of the people affected. It includes warning and evacuation, search and rescue, providing immediate assistance, assessing damage, continuing assistance, and the immediate restoration or construction of infrastructure. An example of this would be building provisional storm drains or diversion dams. Emergency response aims to provide immediate help to keep people alive, improve their health and support their morale. It can involve specific but limited aid, such as helping refugees with transport, temporary shelter, and food. Or it can involve establishing semi-permanent settlements in camps and other locations. It may also involve initial repairs to damage to infrastructure, or diverting it.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Turkish Red Crescent</span> Turkish equivalent of the Red Crescent

The Turkish Red Crescent is the Turkish affiliate of the International Red Crescent and the first worldwide adopter of the crescent symbol for humanitarian aid.

Alight, formerly the American Refugee Committee (ARC), is an international nonprofit, nonsectarian organization that has provided humanitarian assistance and training to millions of beneficiaries over the last 40 years.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Malaysian Red Crescent Society</span> Non-profit organization

The Malaysian Red Crescent (MRC) is a voluntary humanitarian organization that seeks to promote humanitarian values, as well as provide service and public education in disaster management, as well as healthcare in the community. It is part of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement.

There are a number of meanings for the term humanitarian. Here, humanitarian pertains to the practice of saving lives and alleviating suffering. It is usually related to emergency response whether in the case of a natural disaster or a man-made disaster such as war or other armed conflict. Humanitarian principles govern the way humanitarian response is carried out.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies</span> Humanitarian organization

The International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC) is a worldwide humanitarian aid organization that reaches 160 million people each year through its 191 member National Societies. It acts before, during and after disasters and health emergencies to meet the needs and improve the lives of vulnerable people. It does so independently and with impartiality as to nationality, race, gender, religious beliefs, class and political opinions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lebanese Red Cross</span> Humanitarian organization in Lebanon

The Lebanese Red Cross (LRC) is a humanitarian organization and an auxiliary team to the medical service of the Lebanese Army. Its headquarters is in the Lebanese capital city of Beirut. Founded in 1945, the organization comprises approximately 7,000 members/volunteers and 200 staff personnel. The society works with the International Federation and the ICRC, and on a bilateral basis with the Norwegian and the French Red Cross. As of 2008, the LRC also worked with the relevant components of the Lebanese authorities, with UN agencies and NGOs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Finnish Red Cross</span> Finnish nongovernmental organization

The Finnish Red Cross is an independent member of the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, which is one of the biggest and best-known international organisations in the world and in the field of humanitarian aid. FRC has over 71,000 members and around 30,000 active volunteers in Finland. FRC consists of 12 regional chapters and 433 local branches throughout the country. The current General Secretary is Eero Rämö. At the end of 2022, the FRC employed 787 people, of which 204 worked at the headquarters in Helsinki.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Humanitarian response to the 2010 Haiti earthquake</span>

The response to the 2010 Haiti earthquake included national governments, charitable and for-profit organizations from around the world which began coordinating humanitarian aid designed to help the Haitian people. Some countries arranged to send relief and rescue workers and humanitarian supplies directly to the earthquake damage zones, while others sought to organize national fund raising to provide monetary support for the nonprofit groups working directly in Haiti. OCHA coordinates and tracks this on a daily basis. The information is disseminated through the UN news and information portal, ReliefWeb. As of September 5, 2013, ReliefWeb have reported a total relief funding of $3.5 billion given.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Humanitarian response by non-governmental organizations to the 2010 Haiti earthquake</span>

The humanitarian responses by non-governmental organizations to the 2010 Haiti earthquake included many organisations, such as international, religious, and regionally based NGOs, which immediately pledged support in the aftermath of the 2010 Haiti earthquake. Besides a large multi-contingency contribution by national governments, NGOs contributed significantly to both on-the-ground rescue efforts and external solicitation of aid for the rescue efforts.

The Maldivian Red Crescent (MRC) is an independent, volunteer, non-profit, humanitarian organization established in the Maldives by virtue of the Maldivian Red Crescent Act Law No: 7/2009

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