Chuvash people

Last updated

Chuvash
чӑвашсем
çăvaşsem
Old Chuvash men.jpg
Old Chuvash men, the beginning of 20th century
Total population
c. 1.1 million
Regions with significant populations
Flag of Russia.svg  Russia
(Flag of Chuvashia.svg  Chuvashia)		1,067,139
684,930 [1]
Flag of Kazakhstan.svg  Kazakhstan 22,305 [2]
Flag of Ukraine.svg  Ukraine 10,593 [3]
Flag of Uzbekistan.svg  Uzbekistan 10,074 [4]
Flag of Tajikistan.svg  Tajikistan 3,904 [5]
Flag of Turkmenistan.svg  Turkmenistan 2,281 [6]
Flag of Belarus.svg  Belarus 2,242 [7]
Flag of Moldova.svg  Moldova 1,204 [8]
Languages
Chuvash
Russian
Religion
Majority:
Orthodox Christianity
Minority:
Vattisen Yaly
Sunni Islam
Related ethnic groups
Volga Tatars, Bashkirs, Udmurts

The Chuvash people [lower-alpha 1] are a Turkic ethnic group, a branch of the Ogurs, native to an area stretching from the Idel-Ural (Volga-Ural) region to Siberia.

Contents

Most of them live in Chuvashia and the surrounding areas, although Chuvash communities may be found throughout the Russian Federation. They speak Chuvash, a Turkic language that diverged from other languages in the family more than a millennium ago. Among the Chuvash believers, the majority are Eastern Orthodox Christians although a minority follow Sunni Islam or Vattisen Yaly.

Etymology

There is no universally accepted etymology of the word Chuvash, but there are two theories. One theory suggests that the word Chuvash may be derived from Common Turkic jăvaş ('friendly', 'peaceful'), as opposed to şarmăs ('warlike').

Another theory is that the word is derived from the Tabghach, an early medieval Xianbei clan and founders of the Northern Wei dynasty in China. The Old Turkic name Tabghach ( Tuoba in Mandarin) was used by some Inner Asian peoples to refer to China long after this dynasty. Gerard Clauson has shown that through regular sound changes, the clan name Tabghach may have transformed to the ethnonym Chuvash. [11]

Language

Chuvash is a Turkic language spoken in European Russia, primarily in the Chuvash Republic and adjacent areas. It is the only surviving member of the Oghur branch of Turkic languages, one of the two principal branches of the Turkic family. [12] [13]

Although there is no direct evidence some scholars believe that Chuvash may be descendant from a dialect of Volga Bulgar language [14] while others support the idea that Chuvash is another distinct Oghur Turkic language. [15] Since the surviving literary records for the non-Chuvash members of Oghuric (Bulgar and possibly Khazar) are scant, the exact position of Chuvash within the Oghuric family cannot be determined.

Some scholars suggest Hunnish had strong ties with Bulgar and to modern Chuvash [16] and refer to this extended grouping as separate Hunno-Bulgar languages. [17] [18] However, such speculations are not based on proper linguistic evidence, since the language of the Huns is almost unknown except for a few attested words and personal names. Scholars generally consider Hunnish as unclassifiable. [19] [20] [21] [22]

Chuvash woman in traditional attire Chuvash woman in traditional attire.jpg
Chuvash woman in traditional attire

Italian historian and philologist Igor de Rachewiltz noted a significant distinction of the Chuvash language from other Turkic languages. According to him, the Chuvash language does not share certain common characteristics with Turkic languages to such a degree that some scholars consider Chuvash as an independent branch from Turkic and Mongolic. The Turkic classification of Chuvash was seen as a compromise solution for classification purposes. [23] [24] [lower-alpha 2]

Despite grammatical similarity with the rest of Turkic language family, the presence of changes in Chuvash pronunciation (which are hard to reconcile with other members of the Turkic family) has led some scholars to see Chuvash as originating not from Proto-Turkic but from another proto-language spoken at the time of Proto-Turkic (in which case Chuvash and all the remaining Turkic languages would be part of a larger language family). [25]

The Oghuric branch is distinguished from the rest of the Turkic family (the Common Turkic languages) by two sound changes: r corresponding to Common Turkic z and l corresponding to Common Turkic š. [26] The first scientific fieldwork description of Chuvash, by August Ahlqvist in 1856, allowed researchers to establish its proper affiliation. [27]

Chuvash is so divergent from the main body of Turkic languages that Chuvash first believed to be a Turkified Finno-Ugric language or an intermediary branch between Turkic and Mongolic languages. [28] [29] Russian language and neighboring Mari and Volga Tatar heavily influenced the Chuvash language. [30] [31]

Mongolian, Arabic and Persian also influenced Chuvash. [32] [33] Chuvash language has two to three dialects. [34] [35] Although Chuvash is taught at schools and sometimes used in the media, it is considered endangered by the UNESCO, [36] [37] because Russian dominates in most spheres of life and few children learning the language are likely to become active users.

The subdivision of the Chuvash people are as below:

History

Origins

There are two rival schools of thought on the origin of the Chuvash people. One is that they originated from a mixing between the Sabir tribes and the Finno-Ugrians. [38] The other is that they have descendant from Volga Bulgars. Throughout history, they have experienced significant infusion and influence, not only from Russian and other Turkic peoples but also from neighboring Uralic tribes with whom they were persistently and mistakenly identified for centuries. [24]

The Sabirs who believed to have come from Siberia, they lived there at least the end of the third millennium BC. [39] [40] [41] They were skilled in warfare, used siege machinery, [42] had a large army (including women [43] ) and were boatbuilders. Sabirs led incursions into Transcaucasia in the late-400s/early-500s, but quickly began serving as soldiers and mercenaries during the Byzantine-Sasanian Wars on both sides. Their alliance with the Byzantines laid the basis for the later Khazar-Byzantine alliance. [44]

Early history

Chuvash girls in traditional costumes Chuvash girls in traditional costumes.jpg
Chuvash girls in traditional costumes

In the early first century AD, the Bulgars whom may related to Chuvash started moving west through Zhetysu and the steppes of modern-day Kazakhstan, reaching the North Caucasus in the 2nd to 3rd centuries AD. There they established several states (Old Bulgaria on the Black Sea coast and the Suar Duchy in modern-day Dagestan). Old Bulgaria broke up in the second half of the 7th century after a series of successful Khazar invasions. Sabirs who were a tribe within the Khazar Khanate, subsequently undertook a migration to the Volga-Kama region along with other Oghuric tribes, ultimately founded the Volga Bulgaria, which eventually became extremely wealthy: its capital then being the 4th-largest city in the world.

Shortly after that, another state founded by Sabirs in Caucasus known as Suar Principality was forced to become a vassal state of Khazaria. About half a century later, the Suars took part in the Arab–Khazar wars of 732–737. The adoption of Islam in the early tenth century in Volga Bulgaria led to most of its people embracing that religion. [45]

After the Mongols destroyed Volga Bulgaria in 1236, the Golden Horde kept control of the region until its slow dissolution from c. 1438. The Kazan Khanate then became the new authority of the region and of the Chuvash. The modern name "Chuvash" began to appear in records starting from the sixteenth century from Russian and other foreign sources. [46]

In 1552, the Russians conquered the Kazan Khanate and its territories. The Chuvash, required to pay yasak, gradually became dispossessed of much of their land. Many Chuvash who traditionally engaged in agriculture were forced to become bonded laborers in the timber industry or to work in barges due to growing poverty. [47] The subsequent centuries saw the Christianization and Russification of the Chuvash. During this period, most Chuvash converted to Orthodox Christianity, but the Tsars never achieved their complete Russification. [46] [ need quotation to verify ]

After conversion, Russian Historian Vasily Nikitich Tatishchev personally visited the lands of Volga Bulgaria and wrote in 1768 that Bulgars also migrated to Bashkortostan and North of Kazan (i.e. modern-day Chuvashia).

Down the Volga River, the Chuvash, the ancient Bulgars, filled the entire county of Kazan and Simbirsk. Now, after receiving baptism, very few of them remain, because many, not wanting to be baptized, moved to the Bashkirs and settled in other counties.

—  V. N. Tatishchev. "Russian History". Part I. Chapter 22. [48]
Chuvash diaspora in Volga Federal District Chuvash diaspora in Volga Federal District (english).png
Chuvash diaspora in Volga Federal District

Modern history

The eighteenth and nineteenth centuries saw the revival of Chuvash culture and the publication of many educational, literary, and linguistic works, along with the establishment of schools and other programs. The Chuvash language began to be used in local schools, and a special written script for the Chuvash language was created in 1871. [46]

On June 24, 1920, the Bolshevik government of the RSFSR established the Chuvash Autonomous Region; it became the Chuvash Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic on April 21, 1925. Around this time Chuvash nationalism grew, but the Soviet authorities attempted to suppress nationalist movements by re-drawing the borders of the republic, leaving many Chuvash living in neighboring republics or in Russian districts. During most of the Soviet period of 1917–1991, the Chuvash were subjected to Russification campaigns. [49]

The Chuvash language vanished from educational and public use. In 1989, another Chuvash cultural revival began [50] - partly in response to these changes. Soon the Chuvash language once again came into use in educational, public, and political life. [46] As of 2005, schools in the Chuvash Republic and in areas outside that have large Chuvash populations teach the Chuvash language and culture. Chuvash people around Russia also have media available to them in their local communities. [46] [ need quotation to verify ]

Genetics

Autosomal ancestry proportions of the Chuvash and several other populations, according to Kushniarevich et al. (2015). Ancestry proportions of 1194 individuals.png
Autosomal ancestry proportions of the Chuvash and several other populations, according to Kushniarevich et al. (2015).

Physical anthropologists using the racial frameworks of the early 20th century saw the Chuvash as a mixed Finno-Ugric and Turkic people. [52] [24] An autosomal analysis (2015) detected an indication of Oghur and possibly Bulgar ancestry in modern Chuvash. These Oghur tribes brought the Chuvash language with them. [53] Another study found some Finno-Ugric components in Chuvash people. [54]

Phenotypically, there is no particular differences among the Chuvash, as more Caucasoid or more Mongoloid phenotypes can be found among all subgroups. [55] [56] In 2017, a full genome study found Chuvash largely show a Finno-Ugric genetic component despite having a small common Turkic component with Bashkir and Tatar peoples. This study supported language shift hypothesis among Chuvash population. [57]

Culture

A group of Chuvash children with their traditional dress (Anat jenchi - Middle Low Chuvash) Srednenizovye chuvashi "anat enchi".jpeg
A group of Chuvash children with their traditional dress (Anat jenchi - Middle Low Chuvash)

They speak the Chuvash language and have some pre-Christian traditions. The Chuvash have specific patterns used in embroidery, which is found in their traditional clothing. [58] Many people also use the Russian and Tatar language, Spoken in Chuvashia and nearby regions along the middle course of the Volga River, in the central part of European Russia.

Religion

Baptized Chuvash people, 1870 Baptized Chuvash people.jpg
Baptized Chuvash people, 1870

Most Chuvash people are Eastern Orthodox Christians and belong to the Russian Orthodox Church while a minority are Sunni Muslims or practitioners of Vattisen Yaly. After the Russian subjugation of the Chuvash in the 16th century, a campaign of Christianization began. However, most Chuvash were not converted until the mid-19th century. [59] The Chuvash retain some pre-Christian and pre-Islamic shamanism traditions in their cultural activities. [59] [46] Parallel pray in the shrines called keremet and sacrifice geese there. One of the main shrines is located in the town of Bilyarsk. Vattisen Yaly is a contemporary revival of the ethnic religion of the Chuvash people.

A minority of Chuvash may have been exposed to Islam as early as the Volga Bulgaria era but most of those early Chuvash likely converted during the Golden Horde period. [47] An inscription dated at 1307 indicates that some Chuvash were converted to Islam, and religious terms occur in Chuvash in the form of Tatar loanwords. [60] However, sources do not specify the practices of the Chuvash during this period. Some Chuvash who converted to Christianity following the Russian conquest converted to Islam during the 19th and early 20th century. [47] During this period, several Chuvash communities were influenced by Tatars and became Muslim. This caused some Muslim Chuvash to define themselves as Tatars but they retained their language and several Chuvash customs. [61] [62]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ UK: /ˈtʃuːvɑːʃ/ CHOO-vahsh, [9] US: /tʃʊˈvɑːʃ/ chuu-VAHSH; [10] Chuvash: чӑвашсем, romanized: çăvaşsem, IPA: [tɕə̆ˈʋaʂsʲem] ; Russian:чуваши, romanized:čuvaši, IPA: [tɕʊˈvaʂɨ]
  2. ↑ Rachewiltz's classification implies that Chuvash is a separate branch of the wider "Altaic" language grouping, which is itself controversial and has no general consensus within linguistic circles.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Turkic languages</span> Language family of Eurasia

The Turkic languages are a language family of more than 35 documented languages, spoken by the Turkic peoples of Eurasia from Eastern Europe and Southern Europe to Central Asia, East Asia, North Asia (Siberia), and West Asia. The Turkic languages originated in a region of East Asia spanning from Mongolia to Northwest China, where Proto-Turkic is thought to have been spoken, from where they expanded to Central Asia and farther west during the first millennium. They are characterized as a dialect continuum.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bulgars</span> Turkic tribal confederation

The Bulgars were Turkic semi-nomadic warrior tribes that flourished in the Pontic–Caspian steppe and the Volga region between the 5th and 7th centuries. They became known as nomadic equestrians in the Volga-Ural region, but some researchers believe that their ethnic roots can be traced to Central Asia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sabir people</span> 5th-7th–century nomadic ethnic group north of the Caucasus

The Sabirs were a nomadic Turkic equestrian people who lived in the north of the Caucasus beginning in the late-5th -7th century, on the eastern shores of the Black Sea, in the Kuban area, and possibly came from Western Siberia. They were skilled in warfare, used siege machinery, had a large army and were boat-builders. They were also referred to as Huns, a title applied to various Eurasian nomadic tribes in the Pontic-Caspian Steppe during late antiquity. Sabirs led incursions into Transcaucasia in the late-400s/early-500s, but quickly began serving as soldiers and mercenaries during the Byzantine-Sasanian Wars on both sides. Their alliance with the Byzantines laid the basis for the later Khazar-Byzantine alliance.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Volga Bulgaria</span> 900s–1200s Bulgar state on the Volga River

Volga Bulgaria or Volga–Kama Bulgaria was a historical Bulgar state that existed between the 9th and 13th centuries around the confluence of the Volga and Kama River, in what is now European Russia. Volga Bulgaria was a multi-ethnic state with large numbers of Bulgars, Finno-Ugrians, Varangians, and East Slavs. Its strategic position allowed it to create a local trade monopoly with Norse, Cumans, and Pannonian Avars.

Bulgar is an extinct Oghuric Turkic language spoken by the Bulgars.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chuvash language</span> Oghur Turkic language of Volga region

Chuvash is a Turkic language spoken in European Russia, primarily in the Chuvash Republic and adjacent areas. It is the only surviving member of the Oghur branch of Turkic languages, one of the two principal branches of the Turkic family.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Besermyan</span> Permian ethnic group in Udmurtia, Russia

The Besermyan, Biserman, Besermans or Besermens are a numerically small Permian people in Russia.

The Onoghurs, Onoğurs, or Oğurs were a group of Turkic nomadic equestrians who flourished in the Pontic–Caspian steppe and the Volga region between 5th and 7th century, and spoke an Oghuric language.

The Mongol invasion of Volga Bulgaria lasted from 1223 to 1236. The Bulgar state, centered in lower Volga and Kama, was the center of the fur trade in Eurasia throughout most of its history. Before the Mongol conquest, Russians of Novgorod and Vladimir repeatedly looted and attacked the area, thereby weakening the Bulgar state's economy and military power. The latter ambushed the Mongols in the later 1223 or in 1224. Several clashes occurred between 1229–1234, and the Mongol Empire conquered the Bulgars in 1236.

Khazar, also known as Khazaric, was a Turkic dialect group spoken by the Khazars, a group of semi-nomadic Turkic peoples originating from Central Asia. There are few written records of the language and its features and characteristics are unknown. It is believed to have gradually become extinct by the 13th century AD as its speakers assimilated into neighboring Turkic-speaking populations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of Tatarstan</span> History of the Tatarstan region, Russia

The territory of Tatarstan, a republic of the Russian Federation, was inhabited by different groups during the prehistoric period. The state of Volga Bulgaria grew during the Middle Ages and for a time was subject to the Khazars. The Volga Bulgars became Muslim and incorporated various Turkic peoples to form the modern Volga Tatar ethnic group.

Esegels were an Oghur Turkic dynastic tribe in the Middle Ages who joined and would be assimilated into the Volga Bulgars.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Volga Tatars</span> Ethnic group

The Volga Tatars or simply Tatars are a Kipchak-Bulgar Turkic ethnic group native to the Volga-Ural region of western Russia. They are subdivided into various subgroups. Volga Tatars are the second-largest ethnic group in Russia after ethnic Russians. Most of them live in the republics of Tatarstan and Bashkortostan. Their native language is Tatar, a language of the Turkic language family. The predominant religion is Sunni Islam, followed by Orthodox Christianity.

Proto-Turkic is the linguistic reconstruction of the common ancestor of the Turkic languages that was spoken by the Proto-Turks before their divergence into the various Turkic peoples. Proto-Turkic separated into Oghur (western) and Common Turkic (eastern) branches. Candidates for the proto-Turkic homeland range from western Central Asia to Manchuria, with most scholars agreeing that it lay in the eastern part of the Central Asian steppe, while one author has postulated that Proto-Turkic originated 2,500 years ago in East Asia.

The Oghuric, Onoguric or Oguric languages are a branch of the Turkic language family. The only extant member of the group is the Chuvash language. The first to branch off from the Turkic family, the Oghuric languages show significant divergence from other Turkic languages, which all share a later common ancestor. Languages from this family were spoken in some nomadic tribal confederations, such as those of the Onogurs or Ogurs, Bulgars and Khazars.

The history of Chuvashia spans from the region's earliest attested habitation by Finno-Ugric peoples to its incorporation into the Russian Empire and its successor states.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Old Great Bulgaria</span> 632–668 nomadic empire in Eastern Europe

Old Great Bulgaria, also often known by the Latin names Magna Bulgaria and Patria Onoguria, was a 7th-century Turkic nomadic empire formed by the Onogur-Bulgars on the western Pontic–Caspian steppe. Great Bulgaria was originally centered between the Dniester and lower Volga.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mishar Tatars</span> Subgroup of the Volga Tatars

The Mishar Tatars, previously known as the Meshcheryaki (мещеряки), are the second largest subgroup of the Volga Tatars, after the Kazan Tatars. Traditionally, they have inhabited the middle and western side of Volga, including the nowadays Mordovia, Tatarstan, Bashkortostan, Ryazan, Penza, Ulyanovsk, Orenburg, Nizhny Novgorod and Samara regions of Russia. Many have since relocated to Moscow. Mishars also comprise the majority of Finnish Tatars and Tatars living in other Nordic and Baltic countries.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of the western steppe</span>

This article summarizes the History of the western steppe, which is the western third of the Eurasian steppe, that is, the grasslands of Ukraine and southern Russia. It is intended as a summary and an index to the more-detailed linked articles. It is a companion to History of the central steppe and History of the eastern steppe. All dates are approximate since there are few exact starting and ending dates. This summary article does not list the uncertainties, which are many. For these, see the linked articles.

References

  1. ↑ Ethnic groups of Russia in the 2021 census. (in Russian)
  2. ↑ "Демоскоп Weekly - Приложение. Справочник статистических показателей". Demoscope.ru. 21 March 2013. Archived from the original on 4 June 2011. Retrieved 9 February 2016.
  3. ↑ "Всеукраїнський перепис населення 2001 - English version - Results - Nationality and citizenship - The distribution of the population by nationality and mother tongue - Selection". 2001.ukrcensus.gov.ua.
  4. ↑ [ dead link ]
  5. ↑ "Chuvash". Ethnologue. Retrieved 26 September 2023.
  6. ↑ "Демоскоп Weekly - Приложение. Справочник статистических показателей". Demoscope.ru. 21 March 2013. Archived from the original on 14 March 2012. Retrieved 9 February 2016.
  7. ↑ "НАЦИОНАЛЬНЫЙ СОСТАВ НАСЕЛЕНИЯ РЕСПУБЛИКИ БЕЛАРУСЬ (ETHNIC COMPOSITION OF POPULATION OF THE REPUBLIC OF BELARUS)". Archived from the original on 7 February 2009. Retrieved 21 October 2009.
  8. ↑ "Демоскоп Weekly - Приложение. Справочник статистических показателей". Demoscope.ru. 21 March 2013. Archived from the original on 25 January 2016. Retrieved 9 February 2016.
  9. ↑ "Chuvash". Lexico UK English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 12 June 2020.
  10. ↑ "Chuvash". Lexico UK English Dictionary US English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 12 June 2020.
  11. ↑ Gerard Clauson, Studies in Turkic and Mongolic Linguistics. Routledge, 2002, p. 23.
  12. ↑ Clauson, Gerard (2002). Studies in Turkic and Mongolic linguistics. Taylor & Francis. ISBN   0-415-29772-9.
  13. ↑ Price, Glanville (2000). Encyclopedia of the languages of Europe. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN   0-631-22039-9.
  14. ↑ Agyagási, K. (2020). "A Volga Bulgarian Classifier: A Historical and Areal Linguistic Study". University of Debrecen. 3: 9. Modern Chuvash is the only descendant language of the Ogur branch.The ancestors of its speakers left the Khazar Empire in the 8th century and migrated to the region at the confluence of the Volga and Kama rivers, where they founded the Volga Bulgarian Empire in the 10th century. In the central Volga region three Volga Bulgarian dialects developed, and Chuvash is the descendant of the 3rd dialect of Volga Bulgarian (Agyagási 2019: 160–183). Sources refer to it as a separate language beginning with 1508
  15. ↑ Johanson, Lars; Csató, Éva Á, eds. (2021). The Turkic Languages. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781003243809. ISBN   9781003243809. Another Turkic people in the Volga area are the Chuvash, who, like the Tatars, regard themselves as descendants of the Volga Bulghars in the historical and cultural sense. It is clear that Chuvash belongs to the Oghur branch of Turkic, as the language of the Volga Bulghars did, but no direct evidence for diachronic development between the two has been established. As there were several distinct Oghur languages in the Middle Ages, Volga Bulghar could represent one of these and Chuvash another.
  16. ↑ Pritsak, Omeljan (1982). "The Hunnic Language of the Attila Clan". Harvard Ukrainian Studies. IV (4). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute: 470. ISSN   0363-5570. JSTOR   41036005. The language had strong ties to Bulgar language and to modern Chuvash, but also had some important connections, especially lexical and morphological, to Ottoman Turkish and Yakut
  17. ↑ Ramer, Alexis Manaster. "Proto-Bulgarian/Danube Bulgar/Hunno-Bulgar Bekven". Granberg's suggestion that we should revive the term Hunno-Bulgar may well became that replacement — once it is clear that Hunnic and Bulgar were closely related and perhaps even the same language.
  18. ↑ PRITSAK, OMELJAN (1982). "The Hunnic Language of the Attila Clan". Harvard Ukrainian Studies. 6 (4): 428–476. ISSN   0363-5570. JSTOR   41036005. Archived from the original on 23 April 2023. Retrieved 23 April 2023. p. 430 "I was able to establish a Danube- Bulgarian nominative- suffix /A/ from the consonant stems. Recalling that Danube- Bulgarian was a Hunnic language."
  19. ↑ Savelyev, Alexander (27 May 2020). Chuvash and the Bulgharic Languages. Oxford University Press. p. 448. ISBN   978-0-19-880462-8 . Retrieved 30 March 2024.{{cite book}}: |website= ignored (help)
  20. ↑ Golden, Peter B. (1992). An introduction to the history of the Turkic peoples: ethnogenesis and state-formation in medieval and early modern Eurasia and the Middle East. Turcologica. Wiesbaden: O. Harrassowitz. pp. 88 89. ISBN   978-3-447-03274-2.
  21. ↑ RÓNA-TAS, ANDRÁS (1 March 1999). Hungarians and Europe in the Early Middle Ages. Central European University Press. p. 208. doi:10.7829/j.ctv280b77f. ISBN   978-963-386-572-9.
  22. ↑ Sinor, Denis (1997). Studies in medieval inner Asia. Collected studies series. Aldershot, Hampshire: Ashgate. p. 336. ISBN   978-0-86078-632-0.
  23. ↑ Rachewiltz, Igor de. Introduction to Altaic philology: Turkic, Mongolian, Manchu / by Igor de Rachewiltz and Volker Rybatzki; with the collaboration of Hung Chin-fu. p. cm. — (Handbook of Oriental Studies = Handbuch der Orientalistik. Section 8, Central Asia; 20). — Leiden; Boston, 2010. — P. 7.
  24. 1 2 3 Krueger, John R. (1961). Chuvash Manual. Introduction, Grammar, Reader, and Vocabulary. Hague. pp. 7–8.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  25. ↑ Encyclopedia of Linguistics. p. 39.
  26. ↑ Johanson (1998); cf. Johanson (2000, 2007) and the articles pertaining to the subject in Johanson & Csató (ed., 1998).
  27. ↑ Korhonen, Mikko (1986). Finno-Ugrian Language Studies in Finland 1828-1918. Helsinki: Societas Scientiarum Fennica. p. 80. ISBN   951-653-135-0.
  28. ↑ Savelyev, Alexander (June 2020). "Chuvash and the Bulgharic languages". p. 446-464. Retrieved 25 April 2023.
  29. ↑ "Chuvash language | Alphabet, People, & Meaning | Britannica" . Retrieved 25 April 2024. Formerly, scholars considered Chuvash to be a Turkicized Finno-Ugric (Uralic) language or an intermediary branch between Turkic and Mongolian. The distinct character of Chuvash is also indicated by its lack of mutual intelligibility with the other Turkic languages
  30. ↑ Johanson, Lars; Csató, Éva Á, eds. (2021). The Turkic Languages. Routledge. p. 7. doi:10.4324/9781003243809. ISBN   9781003243809. Chuvash have a quite a different history than their neighbors, the Tatars, but they have been in a cultural contact with them, as is clear from linguistic evidence.
  31. ↑ Matti Miestamo; Anne Tamm; Beáta Wagner-Nagy (24 June 2015). Negation in Uralic Languages. John Benjamins Publishing Company. p. 646. ISBN   978-90-272-6864-8.
  32. ↑ "Chuvash". Encyclopedia. The Chuvash language by virtue of a number of peculiarities differs more widely than others from the Turkic languages. There are many Chuvash words in Mari, Udmurt, Russian, and other languages. Likewise, the Chuvash language has borrowings from Arabic, Persian, Kypchak-Tatar, Finnish-Ugric, and Russian.
  33. ↑ Poppe, Nicholas (1977). "On Chuvash-Mongolian Linguistic Contacts". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 97 (2): 111–114. doi:10.2307/598999. ISSN   0003-0279. JSTOR   598999.
  34. ↑ Carl Skutsch; Martin Ryle (2005). Encyclopedia of the world's minorities. New York: Routledge. ISBN   1-57958-392-X. OCLC   56420105.
  35. ↑ Savelyev, Alexander (30 June 2020). "Chuvash and the Bulgharic languages". The Oxford Guide to the Transeurasian Languages. pp. 446–464. doi:10.1093/oso/9780198804628.003.0028. ISBN   978-0-19-880462-8.
  36. ↑ "Zheltov, Pavel. An Attribute-Sample Database System for Describing Chuvash Affixes" (PDF). mt-archive.info. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 21 March 2018.
  37. ↑ Tapani Salminen (22 September 1999). "UNESCO red book on endangered languages: Europe".
  38. ↑ Graf, Orion M; John Mitchell; Stephen Wilcox; Gregory Livshits; and Michael H. Crawford. Chuvash origins: Evidence from mtDNA Markers. (2010). Their maternal markers appear to most closely resemble Finno-Ugric speakers rather than fellow Turkic speakers.
  39. ↑ Sinor, Denis (March 1990). The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia. Cambridge University Press. pp. 200–201. ISBN   978-0-521-24304-9.
  40. ↑ Golden, Peter B. An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples. p. 104.
  41. ↑ Golden, Peter B. Studies on the Peoples and Cultures of the Eurasian Steppes. p. 146.
  42. ↑ Golden, Peter B. Studies on the Peoples and Cultures of the Eurasian Steppes. p. 112.
  43. ↑ Golden, Peter B. Studies on the Peoples and Cultures of the Eurasian Steppes. p. 91.
  44. ↑ Golden, Peter B. Khazar Studies. p. 35.
  45. ↑ Skutsch, Carl, ed. (2005). Encyclopedia of the World's Minorities. New York: Routledge. pp. 312, 313. ISBN   1-57958-468-3.
  46. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Skutsch, Carl, ed. (2005). Encyclopedia of the World's Minorities. New York: Routledge. pp. 312, 313. ISBN   1-57958-468-3.
  47. 1 2 3 Akiner, Shirin (1986). Islamic Peoples Of The Soviet Union (With an Appendix on the non-Muslim Turkic peoples of the Soviet Union. Routledge. pp. 70–77. ISBN   978-1-136-14274-1.
  48. ↑ Tatishchev, Vasily Nikitich (1768). Russian History (in Russian). АСТ. ISBN   9785170182688.
  49. ↑ Skutsch, Carl, ed. (2005). Encyclopedia of the World's Minorities. New York: Routledge (published 2013). p. 313. ISBN   9781135193881 . Retrieved 13 August 2021. During the Soviet era, the Chuvash [...] were subjected to Russification campaigns.
  50. ↑ Skutsch, Carl, ed. (2005). Encyclopedia of the World's Minorities. New York: Routledge (published 2013). p. 313. ISBN   9781135193881 . Retrieved 13 August 2021. In the wake of the changes in 1989, a new Chuvash revival movement started [...].
  51. ↑ Kushniarevich, Alena; Utevska, Olga; Chuhryaeva, Marina; Agdzhoyan, Anastasia; Dibirova, Khadizhat; Uktveryte, Ingrida; Möls, Märt; Mulahasanovic, Lejla; Pshenichnov, Andrey; Frolova, Svetlana; Shanko, Andrey; Metspalu, Ene; Reidla, Maere; Tambets, Kristiina; Tamm, Erika (2015). Calafell, Francesc (ed.). "Genetic Heritage of the Balto-Slavic Speaking Populations: A Synthesis of Autosomal, Mitochondrial and Y-Chromosomal Data". PLOS ONE. 10 (9): e0135820. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1035820K. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0135820 . ISSN   1932-6203. PMC   4558026 . PMID   26332464.
  52. ↑ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Chuvashes"  . Encyclopædia Britannica . Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 350.
  53. ↑ Yunusbayev, Bayazit; Metspalu, Mait; Metspalu, Ene; Valeev, Albert; Litvinov, Sergei; Valiev, Ruslan; Akhmetova, Vita; Balanovska, Elena; Balanovsky, Oleg; Turdikulova, Shahlo; Dalimova, Dilbar; Nymadawa, Pagbajabyn; Bahmanimehr, Ardeshir; Sahakyan, Hovhannes; Tambets, Kristiina; Fedorova, Sardana; Barashkov, Nikolay; Khidiyatova, Irina; Mihailov, Evelin; Khusainova, Rita; Damba, Larisa; Derenko, Miroslava; Malyarchuk, Boris; Osipova, Ludmila; Voevoda, Mikhail; Yepiskoposyan, Levon; Kivisild, Toomas; Khusnutdinova, Elza; Villems, Richard (21 April 2015). "The Genetic Legacy of the Expansion of Turkic-Speaking Nomads across Eurasia". PLOS Genet. 11 (4): e1005068. doi: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1005068 . ISSN   1553-7404. PMC   4405460 . PMID   25898006.
  54. ↑ Suslova, T. A.; Burmistrova, A. L.; Chernova, M. S.; Khromova, E. B.; Lupar, E. I.; Timofeeva, S. V.; Devald, I. V.; Vavilov, M. N.; Darke, C. (1 October 2012). "HLA gene and haplotype frequencies in Russians, Bashkirs and Tatars, living in the Chelyabinsk Region (Russian South Urals)". International Journal of Immunogenetics. 39 (5): 394–408. doi:10.1111/j.1744-313X.2012.01117.x. ISSN   1744-313X. PMID   22520580. S2CID   20804610.
  55. ↑ http://xn--c1acc6aafa1c.xn--p1ai/?question=chuvashi-kto-oni-na-samom-dele Chuvash people — who are they really
  56. ↑ Anthropological material about the origin of Chuvash people
  57. ↑ Triska, Petr; Chekanov, Nikolay; Stepanov, Vadim; Khusnutdinova, Elza K.; Kumar, Ganesh Prasad Arun; Akhmetova, Vita; Babalyan, Konstantin; Boulygina, Eugenia; Kharkov, Vladimir; Gubina, Marina; Khidiyatova, Irina; Khitrinskaya, Irina; Khrameeva, Ekaterina E.; Khusainova, Rita; Konovalova, Natalia (28 December 2017). "Between Lake Baikal and the Baltic Sea: genomic history of the gateway to Europe". BMC Genetics. 18 (1): 110. doi: 10.1186/s12863-017-0578-3 . ISSN   1471-2156. PMC   5751809 . PMID   29297395.
  58. ↑ "Неведомый, чудный узор" [Unknown, Wonderful Pattern. History of cross stitch in the Russian Empire]. pattern.rusneb.ru. Retrieved 14 October 2022.[ permanent dead link ]
  59. 1 2 Cole, Jeffrey (2011). Ethnic Groups of Europe: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 74. ISBN   978-1-59884-302-6.
  60. ↑ "Chuvash | Encyclopedia.com". www.encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 21 April 2023.
  61. ↑ Iagafova, Ekaterina; Bondareva, Valeriia (1 June 2020). "Chuvash 'Paganism' at the Turn of the 21st Century: Traditional Rituals in the Religious Practice of Volga–Urals Chuvash Groups". Journal of Ethnology and Folkloristics. 14 (1): 111–120. doi: 10.2478/jef-2020-0007 . ISSN   2228-0987. In some cases, the Chuvash perceived Tatar ethnic identity as parallel to Islam, although they retained the Chuvash language and kept some elements of Chuvash culture in everyday life as well as in rituals.
  62. ↑ Arik, Durmuş (1 April 2007). "Islam among the Chuvashes and its Role in the Change of Chuvash Ethnicity". Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs. 27 (1): 37–54. doi:10.1080/13602000701308814. ISSN   1360-2004. Chuvashes who accepted Islam later on became imams, muezzins, teachers in madrasahs and the other religious employees. Many Chuvashes were influenced by Tatars who were strong representatives of Islam in the Volga-Urals region. This caused Chuvashes to define themselves as Tatars.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.