Turkic | |
---|---|
Ethnicity | Turkic peoples |
Geographic distribution | Eurasia |
Native speakers | c. 200 million (2020) [1] |
Linguistic classification | One of the world's primary language families |
Proto-language | Proto-Turkic |
Subdivisions | |
ISO 639-5 | trk |
Glottolog | turk1311 |
The distribution of the Turkic languages |
The Turkic languages are a language family of more than 35 [2] documented languages, spoken by the Turkic peoples of Eurasia from Eastern Europe and Southern Europe to Central Asia, East Asia, North Asia (Siberia), and West Asia. The Turkic languages originated in a region of East Asia spanning from Mongolia to Northwest China, where Proto-Turkic is thought to have been spoken, [3] from where they expanded to Central Asia and farther west during the first millennium. [4] They are characterized as a dialect continuum. [5]
Turkic languages are spoken by some 200 million people. [1] The Turkic language with the greatest number of speakers is Turkish, spoken mainly in Anatolia and the Balkans; its native speakers account for about 38% of all Turkic speakers, followed by Uzbek. [4]
Characteristic features such as vowel harmony, agglutination, subject-object-verb order, and lack of grammatical gender, are almost universal within the Turkic family. [4] There is a high degree of mutual intelligibility, upon moderate exposure, among the various Oghuz languages, which include Turkish, Azerbaijani, Turkmen, Qashqai, Chaharmahali Turkic, Gagauz, and Balkan Gagauz Turkish, as well as Oghuz-influenced Crimean Tatar. [6] Other Turkic languages demonstrate varying amounts of mutual intelligibility within their subgroups as well. Although methods of classification vary, the Turkic languages are usually considered to be divided into two branches: Oghur, the only surviving member of which is Chuvash, and Common Turkic, which includes all other Turkic languages.
Turkic languages show many similarities with the Mongolic, Tungusic, Koreanic, and Japonic languages. These similarities have led some linguists (including Talât Tekin) to propose an Altaic language family, though this proposal is widely rejected by historical linguists. [7] [8] Similarities with the Uralic languages even caused these families to be regarded as one for a long time under the Ural-Altaic hypothesis. [9] [10] [11] However, there has not been sufficient evidence to conclude the existence of either of these macrofamilies. The shared characteristics between the languages are attributed presently to extensive prehistoric language contact.
Turkic languages are null-subject languages, have vowel harmony (with the notable exception of Uzbek due to strong Persian-Tajik influence), converbs, extensive agglutination by means of suffixes and postpositions, and lack of grammatical articles, noun classes, and grammatical gender. Subject–object–verb word order is universal within the family. In terms of the level of vowel harmony in the Turkic language family, Tuvan is characterized as almost fully harmonic whereas Uzbek is the least harmonic or not harmonic at all. Taking into account the documented historico-linguistic development of Turkic languages overall, both inscriptional and textual, the family provides over one millennium of documented stages as well as scenarios in the linguistic evolution of vowel harmony which, in turn, demonstrates harmony evolution along a confidently definable trajectory [12] Though vowel harmony is a common characteristic of major language families spoken in Inner Eurasia (Mongolic, Tungusic, Uralic and Turkic), the type of harmony found in them differs from each other, specifically, Uralic and Turkic have a shared type of vowel harmony (called palatal vowel harmony) whereas Mongolic and Tungusic represent a different type.
The homeland of the Turkic peoples and their language is suggested to be somewhere between the Transcaspian steppe and Northeastern Asia (Manchuria), [13] with genetic evidence pointing to the region near South Siberia and Mongolia as the "Inner Asian Homeland" of the Turkic ethnicity. [14] Similarly several linguists, including Juha Janhunen, Roger Blench and Matthew Spriggs, suggest that modern-day Mongolia is the homeland of the early Turkic language. [15] Relying on Proto-Turkic lexical items about the climate, topography, flora, fauna, people's modes of subsistence, Turkologist Peter Benjamin Golden locates the Proto-Turkic Urheimat in the southern, taiga-steppe zone of the Sayan-Altay region. [16]
Extensive contact took place between Proto-Turks and Proto-Mongols approximately during the first millennium BC; the shared cultural tradition between the two Eurasian nomadic groups is called the "Turco-Mongol" tradition. The two groups shared a similar religion system, Tengrism, and there exists a multitude of evident loanwords between Turkic languages and Mongolic languages. Although the loans were bidirectional, today Turkic loanwords constitute the largest foreign component in Mongolian vocabulary. [17]
Italian historian and philologist Igor de Rachewiltz noted a significant distinction of the Chuvash language from other Turkic languages. According to him, the Chuvash language does not share certain common characteristics with Turkic languages to such a degree that some scholars consider it an independent Onoguric (Bulgharic) family similar to Uralic and Turkic languages. Turkic classification of Chuvash was seen as a compromise solution for the classification purposes. [18]
Some lexical and extensive typological similarities between Turkic and the nearby Tungusic and Mongolic families, as well as the Korean and Japonic families has in more recent years been instead attributed to prehistoric contact amongst the group, sometimes referred to as the Northeast Asian sprachbund. A more recent (circa first millennium BC) contact between "core Altaic" (Turkic, Mongolic, and Tungusic) is distinguished from this, due to the existence of definitive common words that appear to have been mostly borrowed from Turkic into Mongolic, and later from Mongolic into Tungusic, as Turkic borrowings into Mongolic significantly outnumber Mongolic borrowings into Turkic, and Turkic and Tungusic do not share any words that do not also exist in Mongolic.
Turkic languages also show some Chinese loanwords that point to early contact during the time of Proto-Turkic. [19]
The first established records of the Turkic languages are the eighth century AD Orkhon inscriptions by the Göktürks, recording the Old Turkic language, which were discovered in 1889 in the Orkhon Valley in Mongolia. The Compendium of the Turkic Dialects ( Divânü Lügati't-Türk ), written during the 11th century AD by Kaşgarlı Mahmud of the Kara-Khanid Khanate, constitutes an early linguistic treatment of the family. The Compendium is the first comprehensive dictionary of the Turkic languages and also includes the first known map of the Turkic speakers' geographical distribution. It mainly pertains to the Southwestern branch of the family. [20]
The Codex Cumanicus (12th–13th centuries AD) concerning the Northwestern branch is another early linguistic manual, between the Kipchak language and Latin, used by the Catholic missionaries sent to the Western Cumans inhabiting a region corresponding to present-day Hungary and Romania. The earliest records of the language spoken by Volga Bulgars, the parent to today's Chuvash language, are dated to the 13th–14th centuries AD.
With the Turkic expansion during the Early Middle Ages (c. 6th–11th centuries AD), Turkic languages, in the course of just a few centuries, spread across Central Asia, from Siberia to the Mediterranean. Various terminologies from the Turkic languages have passed into Persian, Urdu, Ukrainian, Russian, [21] Chinese, Mongolian, Hungarian and to a lesser extent, Arabic. [22] [ verification needed ]
The geographical distribution of Turkic-speaking peoples across Eurasia since the Ottoman era ranges from the North-East of Siberia to Turkey in the West. [23] (See picture in the box on the right above.)
For centuries, the Turkic-speaking peoples have migrated extensively and intermingled continuously, and their languages have been influenced mutually and through contact with the surrounding languages, especially the Iranian, Slavic, and Mongolic languages. [24]
This has obscured the historical developments within each language and/or language group, and as a result, there exist several systems to classify the Turkic languages. The modern genetic classification schemes for Turkic are still largely indebted to Samoilovich (1922).[ citation needed ]
The Turkic languages may be divided into six branches: [25]
In this classification, Oghur Turkic is also referred to as Lir-Turkic, and the other branches are subsumed under the title of Shaz-Turkic or Common Turkic. It is not clear when these two major types of Turkic can be assumed to have diverged. [26]
With less certainty, the Southwestern, Northwestern, Southeastern and Oghur groups may further be summarized as West Turkic, the Northeastern, Kyrgyz-Kipchak, and Arghu (Khalaj) groups as East Turkic. [27]
Geographically and linguistically, the languages of the Northwestern and Southeastern subgroups belong to the central Turkic languages, while the Northeastern and Khalaj languages are the so-called peripheral languages.
Hruschka, et al. (2014) [28] use computational phylogenetic methods to calculate a tree of Turkic based on phonological sound changes.
The following isoglosses are traditionally used in the classification of the Turkic languages: [29] [25]
Additional isoglosses include:
*In the standard Istanbul dialect of Turkish, the ğ in dağ and dağlı is not realized as a consonant, but as a slight lengthening of the preceding vowel.
The following table is based mainly upon the classification scheme presented by Lars Johanson. [32] [33]
The following is a brief comparison of cognates among the basic vocabulary across the Turkic language family (about 60 words). Despite being cognates, some of the words may denote a different meaning.
Empty cells do not necessarily imply that a particular language is lacking a word to describe the concept, but rather that the word for the concept in that language may be formed from another stem and is not cognate with the other words in the row or that a loanword is used in its place.
Also, there may be shifts in the meaning from one language to another, and so the "Common meaning" given is only approximate. In some cases, the form given is found only in some dialects of the language, or a loanword is much more common (e.g. in Turkish, the preferred word for "fire" is the Persian-derived ateş, whereas the native od is dead). Forms are given in native Latin orthographies unless otherwise noted.
Common meaning | Proto-Turkic | Old Turkic | Turkish | Azerbaijani | Karakhanid | Qashqai | Turkmen | Tatar | Karaim | Bashkir | Kazakh | Kyrgyz | Uzbek | Uyghur | Sakha/Yakut | Chuvash | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
father, ancestor | *ata, *kaŋ | ata, apa, qaŋ | baba, ata | baba, ata | apa, ata | bowa/ata | ata | ata, atay [lower-alpha 7] | ata | ata, atay [lower-alpha 8] | ata | ata | ota | ata [lower-alpha 9] | ağa [lower-alpha 10] | atte, aśu, aşşĕ [lower-alpha 11] | |
mother | *ana, *ög | ana, ög | ana, anne | ana | ana, ene | ana/nänä | ene | ana, äni [lower-alpha 12] | ana | ana, inä(y)/asay [lower-alpha 13] | ana | ene, ana [lower-alpha 14] | ona, acha | ana [lower-alpha 15] | iỹe [lower-alpha 16] | anne, annü, amăşĕ [lower-alpha 17] | |
son | *ogul | oɣul | oğul | oğul | oɣul, ohul | oğul | ogul | ul [lower-alpha 18] | uvul | ul | ul [lower-alpha 19] | uul [lower-alpha 20] | oʻgʻil | oghul [lower-alpha 21] | uol [lower-alpha 22] | ıvăl, ul [lower-alpha 23] | |
man | *ēr, *érkek | er | erkek | ər/erkək | erkek | kiši | erkek | ir [lower-alpha 24] | ėr | ir, irkäk [lower-alpha 25] | er, erkek [lower-alpha 26] | er, erkek [lower-alpha 27] | erkak | er [lower-alpha 28] | er [lower-alpha 29] | ar/arśın [lower-alpha 30] | |
girl | *kï̄ŕ | qïz | kız | qız | qɨz | qïz/qez | gyz | qız [lower-alpha 31] | qɨz | qıð [lower-alpha 32] | qyz [lower-alpha 33] | qız | qiz | qiz [lower-alpha 34] | kııs [lower-alpha 35] | hĕr [lower-alpha 36] | |
person | *kiĺi, *yạlaŋuk | kiši, yalaŋuq | kişi | kişi | kiši | kişi | keşe [lower-alpha 37] | kiši | keşe | kisi [lower-alpha 38] | kişi [lower-alpha 39] | kishi | kishi [lower-alpha 40] | kihi [lower-alpha 41] | śın [lower-alpha 42] | ||
bride | *gélin | kelin | gelin | gəlin | qalɨŋ | gälin | gelin | kilen [lower-alpha 43] | kelin | kilen | kelin [lower-alpha 44] | kelin [lower-alpha 45] | kelin | kelin [lower-alpha 46] | kiyiit [lower-alpha 47] | kin [lower-alpha 48] | |
mother-in-law | kaynana | qaynana | qäynänä | gaýyn ene | qayın ana [lower-alpha 49] | qäynä [lower-alpha 50] | qaıyn ene [lower-alpha 51] | qaynene [lower-alpha 52] | qaynona | qeyinana [lower-alpha 53] | huńama [lower-alpha 54] | ||||||
heart | *yürek | yürek | yürek | ürək | jürek | iräg/üräg | ýürek | yöräk [lower-alpha 55] | üriak, jürek | yöräk | jürek [lower-alpha 56] | cürök [lower-alpha 57] | yurak | yürek | sürex [lower-alpha 58] | çĕre [lower-alpha 59] | |
blood | *kiān | qan | kan | qan | qan | qan | gan | qan [lower-alpha 60] | qan | qan [lower-alpha 61] | qan [lower-alpha 62] | qan | qon | qan | xaan [lower-alpha 63] | yun | |
head | *baĺč | baš | baş | baş | baš | baš | baş | baş | baš | baş | bas | baş | bosh | bash | bas | puś/poś | |
hair | *s(i)ač, *kïl | sač, qïl | saç, kıl | saç, qıl | sač, qɨl | tik/qel | saç, gyl | çäç, qıl | čač, sač, qɨl | säs, qıl | shash, qyl | çaç, qıl | soch, qil | sach, qil | battax, kıl | śüś, hul | |
eye | *göŕ | köz | göz | göz | köz | gez/göz | göz | küz | kioź, goz | küð | köz | köz | koʻz | köz | xarax, kös | kuś/koś | |
eyelash | *kirpik | kirpik | kirpik | kirpik | kirpik | kirpig | kirpik | kerfek | kirpik | kerpek | kirpik | kirpik | kiprik | kirpik | kılaman, kirbii | hărpăk | |
ear | *kulkak | qulqaq | kulak | qulaq | qulaq, qulqaq, qulxaq, qulɣaq | qulaq | gulak | qolaq | qulax | qolaq | qulaq | qulaq | quloq | qulaq | kulgaax | hălha | |
nose | *burun | burun | burun | burun | burun | burn | burun | borın | burun | moron | muryn | murun | burun | burun | murun, munnu | murun | |
arm | *kol | qol | kol | qol | qol | qol | gol | qul | kol | qul | qol | qol | qoʻl | qol | хol | hul | |
hand | *el-ig | elig | el | əl | elig | äl | el | alaqan | alaqan | ilik | ilik | ilii | ală | ||||
finger | *erŋek, *biarŋak | erŋek | parmak | barmaq | barmaq | burmaq | barmaq | barmaq | barmax | barmaq | barmaq | barmaq | barmoq | barmaq | tarbaq | pürne/porńa | |
fingernail | *dïrŋak | tïrŋaq | tırnak | dırnaq | tɨrŋaq | dïrnaq | dyrnak | tırnaq | tɨrnax | tırnaq | tyrnaq | tırmaq | tirnoq | tirnaq | tıngıraq | çĕrne | |
knee | *dīŕ, *dǖŕ | tiz | diz | diz | tizle- (to press with one's knees) | diz | dyz | tez | tɨz | teð | tize | tize | tizza | tiz | tobuk | çĕrśi, çerkuśśi | |
calf | *baltïr | baltïr | baldır | baldır | baldɨr | ballïr | baldyr | baltır | baldɨr | baltır | baltyr | baltır | boldir | baldir | ballır | pıl | |
foot | *(h)adak | adaq | ayak | ayaq | aδaq | ayaq | aýak | ayaq | ajax | ayaq | aıaq | but, ayaq | oyoq, adoq | ayaq | ataq | ura | |
belly | *kạrïn | qarïn | karın | qarın | qarɨn | qarn | garyn | qarın | qarɨn | qarın | qaryn | qarın | qorin | qerin | xarın | hırăm | |
horse | *(h)at | at | at | at | at | at | at | at | at | at | at | at | ot | at | at | ut/ot | |
cattle | *dabar | ingek, tabar | inek, davar, sığır | inək, sığır | ingek, ingen; tavar | seğer | sygyr | sıyır | sɨjɨr | hıyır | siyr | uy, sıyır, inek | sigir, inak | siyir | ınax | ĕne | |
dog | *ït, *köpek | ït | it, köpek | it | ɨt | kepäg | it | et | it´ | et | ıt | it, köbök | it | it | ıt | yıtă | |
fish | *bālïk | balïq | balık | balıq | balɨq | balïq | balyk | balıq | balɨx | balıq | balyq | balıq | baliq | beliq | balık | pulă | |
louse | *bït | bit | bit | bit | bit | bit | bit | bet | bit | bet | bıt | bit | bit | bit | bıt | pıytă/puťă | |
house | *eb, *bark | eb, barq | ev, bark | ev | ev | äv | öý | öy | üy, üv | öy | üı | üy | uy | öy | śurt | ||
tent | *otag, *gerekü | otaɣ, kerekü | çadır, otağ | çadır; otaq | otaɣ, kerekü | čador | çadyr; otag | çatır | oda | satır | shatyr; otau | çatır, otoo, otoq | chodir; oʻtoq | chadir; otaq | otuu | çatăr | |
way | *yōl | yol | yol | yol | jol | yol | ýol | yul | jol | yul | jol | col | yoʻl | yol | suol | śul | |
bridge | *köprüg | köprüg | köprü | körpü | köprüg | köpri | küper | kiopriu | küper | köpir | köpürö | koʻprik | kövrük | kürpe | kĕper | ||
arrow | *ok | oq | ok | ox | oq | ox/tir | ok | uq | oq | uq | oq | oq | oʻq | oq | ox | uhă | |
fire | *ōt | ōt | od, ateş (Pers.) | od | ot | ot | ot | ut | ot | ut | ot | ot | oʻt | ot | uot | vut/vot | |
ash | *kül | kül | kül | kül | kül | kil/kül | kül | köl | kul | köl | kül | kül | kul | kül | kül | kĕl | |
water | *sub, *sïb | sub | su | su | suv | su | suw | su | su | hıw | su | suu | suv | su | uu | şıv/şu | |
ship, boat | *gḗmi | kemi | gemi | gəmi | kemi | gämi | köymä | gemi | kämä | keme | keme | kema | keme | kimĕ | |||
lake | *kȫl | köl | göl | göl | köl | göl/gel | köl | kül | giol´ | kül | köl | köl | koʻl | köl | küöl | külĕ | |
sun/day | *güneĺ, *gün | kün | güneş, gün | günəş, gün | kün, qujaš | gin/gün | gün | qoyaş, kön | kujaš | qoyaş, kön | kün | kün | quyosh, kun | quyash, kün | kün | hĕvel, kun | |
cloud | *bulït | bulut | bulut | bulud | bulut | bulut | bulut | bolıt | bulut | bolot | bult | bulut | bulut | bulut | bılıt | pĕlĕt | |
star | *yultuŕ | yultuz | yıldız | ulduz | julduz | ulluz | ýyldyz | yoldız | julduz | yondoð | juldyz | cıldız | yulduz | yultuz | sulus | śăltăr | |
ground, earth | *toprak | topraq | toprak | torpaq | topraq | torpaq | toprak | tufraq | topraq, toprax | tupraq | topyraq | topuraq | tuproq | tupraq | toburax | tăpra | |
hilltop | *tepö, *töpö | töpü | tepe | təpə | tepe | depe | tübä | tebe | tübä | töbe | döbö, töbö | tepa | töpe | töbö | tüpĕ | ||
tree/wood | *ïgač | ïɣač | ağaç | ağac | jɨɣač | ağaĵ | agaç | ağaç | ahač | ağas | ağash | baq, daraq, cığaç | yogʻoch | yahach | mas | yıvăś | |
god (Tengri) | *teŋri, *taŋrï | teŋri, burqan | tanrı | tanrı | teŋri | tarï/Allah/Xoda | taňry | täñre | Tieńri | täñre | täŋiri | teñir | tangri | tengri | tangara | tură/toră | |
sky | *teŋri, *kȫk | kök, teŋri | gök | göy | kök | gey/göy | gök | kük | kök | kük | kök | kök | koʻk | kök | küöx | kăvak/koak | |
long | *uŕïn | uzun | uzun | uzun | uzun | uzun | uzyn | ozın | uzun | oðon | uzyn | uzun | uzun | uzun | uhun | vărăm | |
new | *yaŋï, *yeŋi | yaŋï | yeni | yeni | jaŋɨ | yeŋi | ýaňy | yaña | jɨŋgɨ | yañı | jaña | cañı | yangi | yengi | saña | śĕnĕ | |
fat | *semiŕ | semiz | semiz, şişman | səmiz | semiz | semiz | simez | semiz | himeð | semiz | semiz | semiz | semiz | emis | samăr | ||
full | *dōlï | tolu | dolu | dolu | tolu | dolu | doly | tulı | tolɨ | tulı | toly | toluq, tolu, toluu, tolo | toʻla | toluq | toloru | tulli | |
white | *āk, *ürüŋ | āq, ürüŋ | ak, beyaz (Ar.) | ağ | aq | aq | ak | aq | aq | aq | aq | aq | oq | aq | ürüñ (үрүҥ) | şură | |
black | *kara | qara | kara, siyah (Pers.) | qara | qara | qärä | gara | qara | qara | qara | qara | qara | qora | qara | xara | hura, hora | |
red | *kïŕïl | qïzïl | kızıl, kırmızı (Ar.) | qızıl | qɨzɨl | qïzïl | gyzyl | qızıl | qɨzɨl | qıðıl | qyzyl | qızıl | qizil | qizil | kıhıl | hĕrlĕ | |
1 | *bīr | bir | bir | bir | bir | bir | bir | ber | bir, bɨr | ber | bir | bir | bir | bir | biir | pĕrre | |
2 | *éki | eki | iki | iki | ẹki | ikki | iki | ike | eky | ike | eki | eki | ikki | ikki | ikki | ikkĕ | |
3 | *üč | üč | üç | üç | üč | uǰ, u̇č | üç | öč | üć | ös | üş | üč | uch/u̇č | üch/üç | üs | viśśĕ, viśĕ, viś | |
4 | *dȫrt | tört | dört | dörd | tört | derd/dörd | dört | dürt | dört | dürt | tört | tört | toʻrt | tört | tüört | tăvattă | |
5 | *bēĺ(k) | béš | beş | beş | béš | bäş | beş | beš | biš | bes | beş | besh/beş | besh/beş | bies | pillĕk | ||
6 | *altï | altï | altı | altı | altï | altï | alty (altï) | altï | altï | altï | alty | altı | olti (ålti) | altä | alta | ult, ultă, ulttă | |
7 | *yéti | yeti | yedi | yeddi | jeti | yeddi | ýedi | cide | jedi | yete | jeti | ceti | yetti | yetti | sette | śiççe | |
8 | *sekiŕ | säkiz | sekiz | səkkiz | sek(k)iz, sik(k)iz | sӓkkiz | sekiz | sigez | sekiz | higeð | segiz | segiz | säkkiz | säkkiz | aɣïs | sakkăr, sakăr | |
9 | *tokuŕ | toquz | dokuz | doqquz | toquz | doġġuz | dokuz | tugïz | toɣuz | tuɣïð | toğyz | toğuz | to’qqiz | toqquz | toɣus | tăxxăr, tăxăr | |
10 | *ōn | on | on | on | on | on | on | un | on | un | on | on | oʻn | on | uon | vunnă, vună, vun | |
20 | *yẹgirmi | yigirmi/yégirmi | yirmi | iyirmi | yigirmi, yigirme | igirmi, iyirmi | yigrimi | yegerme | yigirmi | yegerme | jiyirma | cıyırma | yigirmä | yigirmä | süürbe | śirĕm | |
30 | *otuŕ | otuz | otuz | otuz | otuz | ottiz | otuz (otuð) | otuz | otuz | utïð | otyz | otuz | o’ttiz | ottuz | otut | vătăr | |
40 | *kïrk | qïrq | kırk | qırx | qïrq | ġèrḫ (ɢərx) | kyrk (kïrk) | qırq (qïrq) | kïrx | qïrq | qyryq | qırq | qirq | qirq | tüört uon | xĕrĕx | |
50 | *ellig | älig | elli | ǝlli (älli) | el(l)ig | älli, ẹlli | elli | ille | elu | elüü | |||||||
60 | *altmïĺ | altmïš | altmış | altmış (altmïš) | altmïš | altmïš | altmyş (altmïš) | altmïš | altïmïš | altïmïš | alpys | altımış | oltmish (åltmiš) | altmiš | alta uon | ultmăl | |
70 | *yẹtmiĺ | yētmiš/s | yetmiş | yetmiş | yetmiš | yetmiš | ýetmiş (yetmiš) | ǰitmeš | yetmiš/s | yetmeš | jetpis | cetimiş | yetmiš | yätmiš | sette uon | śitmĕl | |
80 | *sekiŕ ōn | säkiz on | seksen | sǝksǝn (säksän) | seksün | sӓɣsen | segsen | seksen | seksen, seksan | hikhen | seksen | seksen | sakson (säksån) | säksän | aɣïs uon | sakăr vun(ă) | |
90 | *dokuŕ ōn | toquz on | doksan | doxsan | toqsan | togsan | tuksan | toksan, toxsan | tukhan | toqsan | toqson | to'qson (tȯksån) | toqsan | toɣus uon | tăxăr vun(ă), tăxăr vunnă | ||
100 | *yǖŕ | yüz | yüz | yüz | jüz | iz/yüz | ýüz | yöz | jiz, juz, jüz | yöð | jüz | cüz | yuz | yüz | süüs | śĕr | |
1000 | *bïŋ | bïŋ | bin | min | miŋ, men | min | müň (müŋ) | meŋ | min, bin | meŋ | myñ | miñ | ming (miŋ) | miŋ | tïhïïnča | pin | |
Common meaning | Proto-Turkic | Old Turkic | Turkish | Azerbaijani | Karakhanid | Qashqai | Turkmen | Tatar | Karaim | Bashkir | Kazakh | Kyrgyz | Uzbek | Uyghur | Sakha/Yakut | Chuvash |
Azerbaijani "ǝ" and "ä": IPA /æ/
Azerbaijani "q": IPA /g/, word-final "q": IPA /x/
Turkish and Azerbaijani "ı", Karakhanid "ɨ", Turkmen "y", and Sakha "ï": IPA /ɯ/
Turkmen "ň", Karakhanid "ŋ": IPA /ŋ/
Turkish and Azerbaijani "y",Turkmen "ý" and "j" in other languages: IPA /j/
All "ş" and "š" letters: IPA /ʃ/
All "ç" and "č" letters: IPA /t͡ʃ/
Kyrgyz "c": IPA /d͡ʒ/
Kazakh "j": IPA /ʒ/
The Turkic language family is currently regarded as one of the world's primary language families. [10] Turkic is one of the main members of the controversial Altaic language family, but Altaic currently lacks support from a majority of linguists. None of the theories linking Turkic languages to other families have a wide degree of acceptance at present. Shared features with languages grouped together as Altaic have been interpreted by most mainstream linguists to be the result of a sprachbund. [52]
The possibility of a genetic relation between Turkic and Korean, independently from Altaic, is suggested by some linguists. [53] [54] [55] The linguist Kabak (2004) of the University of Würzburg states that Turkic and Korean share similar phonology as well as morphology. Li Yong-Sŏng (2014) [54] suggest that there are several cognates between Turkic and Old Korean. He states that these supposed cognates can be useful to reconstruct the early Turkic language. According to him, words related to nature, earth and ruling but especially to the sky and stars seem to be cognates.
The linguist Choi [55] suggested already in 1996 a close relationship between Turkic and Korean regardless of any Altaic connections:
In addition, the fact that the morphological elements are not easily borrowed between languages, added to the fact that the common morphological elements between Korean and Turkic are not less numerous than between Turkic and other Altaic languages, strengthens the possibility that there is a close genetic affinity between Korean and Turkic.
— Choi Han-Woo, A Comparative Study of Korean and Turkic (Hoseo University)
Many historians also point out a close non-linguistic relationship between Turkic peoples and Koreans. [56] Especially close were the relations between the Göktürks and Goguryeo. [57]
Some linguists suggested a relation to Uralic languages, especially to the Ugric languages. This view is rejected and seen as obsolete by mainstream linguists. Similarities are because of language contact and borrowings mostly from Turkic into Ugric languages. Stachowski (2015) states that any relation between Turkic and Uralic must be a contact one. [58]
Altaic is a controversial proposed language family that would include the Turkic, Mongolic and Tungusic language families and possibly also the Japonic and Koreanic languages. The hypothetical language family has long been rejected by most comparative linguists, although it continues to be supported by a small but stable scholarly minority. Speakers of the constituent languages are currently scattered over most of Asia north of 35° N and in some eastern parts of Europe, extending in longitude from the Balkan Peninsula to Japan. The group is named after the Altai mountain range in the center of Asia.
Ural-Altaic, Uralo-Altaic, Uraltaic, or Turanic is a linguistic convergence zone and abandoned language-family proposal uniting the Uralic and the Altaic languages. It is generally now agreed that even the Altaic languages do not share a common descent: the similarities among Turkic, Mongolic and Tungusic are better explained by diffusion and borrowing. Just as Altaic, internal structure of the Uralic family also has been debated since the family was first proposed. Doubts about the validity of most or all of the proposed higher-order Uralic branchings are becoming more common. The term continues to be used for the central Eurasian typological, grammatical and lexical convergence zone.
The Mongolic languages are a language family spoken by the Mongolic peoples in Eastern Europe, Central Asia, North Asia and East Asia, mostly in Mongolia and surrounding areas and in Kalmykia and Buryatia. The best-known member of this language family, Mongolian, is the primary language of most of the residents of Mongolia and the Mongol residents of Inner Mongolia, with an estimated 5.7+ million speakers.
Tatar is a Turkic language spoken by the Volga Tatars mainly located in modern Tatarstan, as well as Siberia. It should not be confused with Crimean Tatar or Siberian Tatar, which are closely related but belong to different subgroups of the Kipchak languages.
The Tungusic languages form a language family spoken in Eastern Siberia and Manchuria by Tungusic peoples. Many Tungusic languages are endangered. There are approximately 75,000 native speakers of the dozen living languages of the Tungusic language family. The term "Tungusic" is from an exonym for the Evenk people (Ewenki) used by the Yakuts ("tongus").
Bashkir or Bashkort is a Turkic language belonging to the Kipchak branch. It is co-official with Russian in Bashkortostan. It is spoken by 1.09 million native speakers in Russia, as well as in Ukraine, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Estonia and other neighboring post-Soviet states, and among the Bashkir diaspora. It has three dialect groups: Southern, Eastern and Northwestern.
Bulgar is an extinct Oghuric Turkic language spoken by the Bulgars.
Altai is a set of Turkic languages, which are in turn hypothesized by some to be a set of Altaic languages spoken officially in the Altai Republic, Russia. The standard vocabulary is based on the Southern Altai language, though it's also taught to and used by speakers of the Northern Altai language as well. Gorno–Altai refers to a subgroup of languages in the Altai Mountains.The languages were called Oyrot (ойрот) prior to 1948.
Chuvash is a Turkic language spoken in European Russia, primarily in the Chuvash Republic and adjacent areas. It is the only surviving member of the Oghur branch of Turkic languages, one of the two principal branches of the Turkic family.
The Onoghurs, Onoğurs, or Oğurs were Turkic nomadic equestrians who flourished in the Pontic–Caspian steppe and the Volga region between 5th and 7th century, and spoke the Oghuric language.
Karakalpak is a Turkic language spoken by Karakalpaks in Karakalpakstan. It is divided into two dialects, Northeastern Karakalpak and Southwestern Karakalpak. It developed alongside Nogai and neighbouring Kazakh languages, being markedly influenced by both. Typologically, Karakalpak belongs to the Kipchak branch of the Turkic languages, thus being closely related to and highly mutually intelligible with Kazakh and Nogai.
Old Turkic is the earliest attested form of the Common Turkic languages, first found in Second Turkic Khaganate then in Uyghur Khaganate inscriptions. In marked contrast to Middle Turkic, the geographic extent of (East) Old Turkic is rather confined, being limited mainly to East Turkistan and Mongolia. In terms of the datability of extant written sources, the period of Old Turkic can be dated from slightly before 720 AD to the Mongol invasions of the 13th century. Orkhon Turkic and Old Uyghur are considered to be dialects of East Old Turkic, Orkhon Turkic being the earliest attested dialect of (East) Old Turkic. There is a difference of opinion among linguists with regard to Karakhanid Turkic, some classify it as another dialect of East Old Turkic, while others prefer to include Karakhanid among Middle Turkic languages; nonetheless, Karakhanid is extremely close to Old Uyghur so much so that a single grammatical description will fit both of them. East Old Turkic and West Old Turkic together comprise the Old Turkic proper. East Old Turkic is the oldest attested member of the Siberian Turkic branch of Turkic languages, and several of its now-archaic grammatical as well as lexical features are extant in the modern Yellow Uyghur, Lop Nur Uyghur and Khalaj ; Khalaj, for instance, has (surprisingly) retained a considerable number of archaic Old Turkic words despite forming a language island within Central Iran and being heavily influenced by Persian. Old Uyghur is not a direct ancestor of the Modern Standard Uyghur language ; the contemporaneous ancestor of Modern Uyghur was one of the Middle Turkic languages, later giving rise to Chagatai literary language.
Fuyu Kyrgyz, also known as Manchurian Kirghiz, is a critically endangered Turkic language, and as, Gïrgïs, Kyrgysdar is an ethnonym of the Turkic unrecognized ethnic group in China. Despite the name, the Fuyu Kyrgyz language is not closely related to the Kyrgyz language, which is of Kipchak origin. The Fuyu Kyrgyz language is more similar to the Western Yugur language and the Abakan Turkic languages. The people originated in the Yenisei region of Siberia but were relocated into Dzungaria by the Dzungars.
The Kipchak languages are a sub-branch of the Turkic language family spoken by approximately 28 million people in much of Central Asia and Eastern Europe, spanning from Ukraine to China. Some of the most widely spoken languages in this group are Kazakh, Kyrgyz and Tatar.
Proto-Turkic is the linguistic reconstruction of the common ancestor of the Turkic languages that was spoken by the Proto-Turks before their divergence into the various Turkic peoples. Proto-Turkic separated into Oghur (western) and Common Turkic (eastern) branches. Candidates for the proto-Turkic homeland range from western Central Asia to Manchuria, with most scholars agreeing that it lay in the eastern part of the Central Asian steppe, while one author has postulated that Proto-Turkic originated 2,500 years ago in East Asia.
The Siberian Turkic or Northeastern Common Turkic languages, are a sub-branch of the Turkic language family. The following table is based upon the classification scheme presented by Lars Johanson (1998). All languages of the branch combined have approximately 750,000–1 million native and second language speakers, with most widely spoken members being Yakut, Tuvan and Northern Altai. Despite their usual English name, two major Turkic languages spoken in Siberia, Siberian Tatar and Southern Altai, are not classified as Siberian Turkic, but are rather part of the Kipchak subgroup.
Common Turkic, or Shaz Turkic, is a taxon in some classifications of the Turkic languages that includes all of them except the Oghuric languages.
Yakutyə-KOOT, also known as Yakutian, Sakha, Saqa or Saxa, is a Turkic language belonging to Siberian Turkic branch and spoken by around 450,000 native speakers, primarily the ethnic Yakuts and one of the official languages of Sakha (Yakutia), a federal republic in the Russian Federation.
The Etymological Dictionary of the Altaic Languages is a comparative and etymological dictionary of the hypothetical Altaic language family. It was written by linguists Sergei Starostin, Anna Dybo, and Oleg Mudrak, and was published in Leiden in 2003 by Brill Publishers. It contains 3 volumes, and is a part of the Handbook of Oriental Studies: Section 8, Uralic and Central Asian Studies; no. 8.
The origin and early dispersal history of the Turkic peoples is disputed, with candidates for their ancient homeland ranging from the Transcaspian steppe to Manchuria in Northeast Asia,
Thus, our study provides the first genetic evidence supporting one of the previously hypothesized IAHs to be near Mongolia and South Siberia.
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