Salar language

Last updated
Salar
Salarcha
撒拉语
Salar.svg
Native to China
Region Qinghai, Gansu, Xinjiang
Native speakers
70,000 (2002) [1]
Dialects
  • Ili Salar
  • Gaizi (Jiezi)
  • Mengda
Pinyin-based Latin and Chinese characters
Official status
Official language in
Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg  China
Language codes
ISO 639-3 slr
Glottolog sala1264
ELP Salar
Lang Status 80-VU.svg
Salar is classified as Vulnerable by the UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.

Salar is a moribund Turkic language spoken by the Salar people, who mainly live in the provinces of Qinghai and Gansu in China; some also live in Ili, Xinjiang. It is a primary branch and an eastern outlier of the Oghuz branch of Turkic, the other Oghuz languages being spoken mostly in Western and Central Asia. The Salar number about 105,000 people, about 70,000 [6] (2002) speak the Salar language; under 20,000 [6] are monolinguals.

Contents

According to Salar tradition and Chinese chronicles, the Salars are the descendants of the Salur tribe, belonging to the Oghuz Turk tribe of the Western Turkic Khaganate. During the Tang dynasty, the Salur tribe dwelt within China's borders and since then has lived within the Qinghai-Gansu border region. [7] [8] Contemporary Salar has some influence from Chinese and Amdo Tibetan.

Classification

Due to the ethnonym "Salur", which is also shared by some modern Turkmen tribes, linguists historically tried to establish a link between Turkmen varieties and the Salar language. Some placenames in Uzbekistan include the word Salar. Most modern linguists today classify Salar as an independent primary branch of the Oghuz languages. [9] [10]

History

Origins and development

The ancestor to modern Salar is thought to have diverged first from the Proto-Oghuz language, a hypothetical language that all modern Oghuz languages are believed to be descended from. It was brought to the region by a small, nomadic and Muslim community, and received significant influence from other non-Oghuz Turkic languages such as Chagatai, [11] Kipchak and the Karluk languages, [12] along with non-Turkic languages belonging to the Sino-Tibetan family.

After the Jahriyya revolt, some Salars were deported to the Ili valley and established a new community in the region. This led to the divergence of a distinctive dialect called Ili Salar influenced by the neighboring Kazakh and Uyghur languages. [13]

Current situation

According to 2002 estimates, Salars number about 105,000 people, and about 70,000 of them speak the Salar language. Only under 20,000 Salars are monolingual. [6] [ needs update ]

The Salar language is the official language in all Salar autonomous areas. [5] Such autonomous areas are the Xunhua Salar Autonomous County and the Jishishan Bonan, Dongxiang and Salar Autonomous County. In Qinghai Province, most Salar people speak both Qinghai Mandarin (Chinese) and Salar. Rural Salars can speak Salar more fluently while urban Salars often assimilate more into the Chinese-speaking Hui Muslim population. [14]

Phonology

Salar's phonology has been influenced by Chinese and Tibetan. In addition, /k,q/ and /ɡ,ɢ/ have become separate phonemes due to loanwords, as they have in other Turkic languages. [15]

Consonants [15]
Labial Dental Retroflex Alveolo-
palatal 		Velar Uvular Glottal
Nasal m n
Plosive/
Affricate 		voiceless p t t͡ʂ t͡ɕ k q
voiced b d d͡ʐ d͡ʑ ɡ ɢ
Fricative voiceless f s ʂ ɕ x h
voiced ( v ) z ʁ
Approximant w l r j
Vowels
Front Back
unrounded rounded unrounded rounded
Close i y ɯ u
Open e ø ɑ o

Salar's vowels are similar to those of Turkish, with the back vowels /a,ɯ,o,u/ and the corresponding front vowels /e,i,ø,y/. [16] In Ili Salar, the high front vowels i and y, when placed after an initial glide, are spirantized with j transforming into ʝ. [17] Qinghai and Ili Salar have mostly the same consonantal development. [18]

Vocabulary

In Qinghai Province, the Salar language has been notably influenced by Chinese and Tibetan. [19] Although of Turkic origin, major linguistic structures have been absorbed from Chinese. Around 20% of the vocabulary is of Chinese origin and another 10% is of Tibetan origin. Yet the official Chinese government policy deliberately covers up these influences in academic and linguistics studies, trying to emphasize the Turkic element and completely ignoring the Chinese superstrate in the Salar language. [20] [ why? ] The Salar language has taken loans and influence from neighboring varieties of Chinese. [21] Vice versa, the neighboring variants of the Chinese language have also adopted loanwords from the Salar language. [22]

For the verb "to do" Salar uses "ät" (compare Turkish et). [23] For the word "lips" Salar uses "dodax" (compare Turkish dudak). [24] The participle miš is used by Salar (compare Turkish -mış). [25] [26]

Dialects

The Qing Empire deported some Salars who belonged to the Jahriyya Sufi order to the Ili valley which is in modern-day Xinjiang. Today, a community of about four thousand Salars speaking a distinct dialect of Salar still live in Ili. Salar migrants from Amdo (Qinghai) came to settle the region as religious exiles, migrants, and as soldiers enlisted in the Chinese army to fight rebels in Ili, often following the Hui. [27] The distinctive dialect of the Ili Salar differs from the other Salar dialects because the neighboring Kazakh and Uyghur languages in Ili influenced it. [28] The Ili Salar population numbers around 4,000 people. [29] There have been instances of misunderstanding between speakers of Ili Salar and Qinghai Salar due to the divergence of the dialects. [30] The differences between the two dialect result in a "clear isogloss". [31]

However, Lin Lianyun and Han Jianye divide the Salar into two dialects by including the Western Salar in the Gaizi dialect: the Gaizi dialect [32] and the Mengda dialect. [33] [34] The Gaizi dialect is mainly distributed in Jiezi, Qingshui and Baizhuang in Xunhua County, Gandu in Hualong County, Dahejia in Linxia Hui Autonomous Prefecture of Gansu Province and Yining County, Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region. The Mengda dialect is distributed around the Mengda area of Xunhua County. The Mengda dialect is b-Salar, while the Gaizi (or Jiezi) dialect is v-Salar. For example; It lives in the Ili and Jiezi as vol- "to be", ver- "to give", vax- "to look", and in the Mengda dialect as bol- "to be", ber- "to give", bax- "to look". Also, Mengda lost its gh phoneme and the phonemes turn into x phonemes: Gaizi deɣ- "to touch", Mengda dex- "to touch"; Gaizi yaʁ- "to rain", Mengda yaχ- "to rain". While the m phonemes stood in the Gaizi dialect, it turned into the n sound in Mengda dialect: Gaizi qamjü "whip", Mengda qanjü "whip"; Gaizi göm- "to embed", Mengda gön- "to embed". [33]

Tenishev's comparison of
Jiezi and Mengda (IPA) [35] [24]
Jiezi (Gaizi)/tʰ//v//e//i//ɘ//ɨ//ø/
Mengda/ʒʰ//p//ɑ//e//ɑ//i//o/

Although Ili Salar is located far away from other dialects, the dialects of the Salar language are very close to each other. The difference between them is mostly phonological. [33] For example; Ili Salar [36] gölök, Qinghai [33] gölix, gölex "cow".

Writing system

Salars mostly use Chinese for writing while using the Salar language for speaking. [37] [38] [39]

Salar does not have an official script, but it has sometimes been written down using the Arabic script. [40] Some Salar call for a Latin script and some Salar who dislike the Pinyin-based Latin script desire to use Chinese characters instead. [41] This lack of an official script has led most Salar to use the Chinese writing system. [42] China offered the Salar an official writing system quite similar to the Uyghur Yengi Yezik, but it was rejected for similar reasons as Yengi Yezik was rejected in Xinjiang.

Young Salar have also started to use a Salar script based on the orthography for Turkic languages. It is quite popular with Salars for writing Salar on the internet. There are two main variants that are used, TB30 and TB31. The Arabic script is also still popular among the Salar. The Arabic script has a historical precedent among the Salar; centuries-old documents in the Salar language written in the Arabic script have been discovered. [43] [ better source needed ]

Grigory Potanin used the Cyrillic alphabet to record a glossary of Salar, [44] [45] [46] Western Yugur language and Eastern Yugur language [47] [48] [49] [50] in his 1893 Russian language book The Tangut-Tibetan Borderlands of China and Central Mongolia with assistance from Vasily Radlov. [51]

William Woodville Rockhill wrote a glossary of Salar in his 1894 book Diary of a Journey through Mongolia and Tibet in 1891 and 1892 using the Latin alphabet based on the Wade–Giles romanization system used for Chinese. [52] [53] [54]

TB30

Aa Bb Cc Çç Dd Ee Ff Gg
Ğğ Hh İi Iı Kk Ll Mm Nn Ññ
Oo Öö Pp Qq Rr Ss Şş Tt
Uu Üü Yy Vv Zz

Pinyin-based Latin alphabet

A romanization of the Mengda dialect of Salar based on Pinyin has been developed, created by a Salar, Ma Quanlin, who lives in Xunhua. [55] Like Pinyin, which is used to romanize Mandarin Chinese, this Salar romanization is divided into categories of consonants and vowels. [56] Letters that occur both in Pinyin and romanization of Mengda Salar share the same sound values. [57]

Consonants

Pinyin IPA English approximationExplanation
b[ p ]spitunaspirated p, as in spit
p[ pʰ ]paystrongly aspirated p, as in pit
m[ m ]mayas in English mummy
f[ f ]fairas in English fun
d[ t ]stopunaspirated t, as in stop
t[ tʰ ]takestrongly aspirated t, as in top
n[ n ]nayas in English nit
l[ l ]layas in English love
l/ð/thoseas in English the
g[ k ]skillunaspirated k, as in skill
g̲/ɣ/no equivalent in English"thicker and deeper" version of g
k[ kʰ ]kaystrongly aspirated k, as in kill
h[ x ]lochroughly like the Scots ch. English h as in hay or hot is an acceptable approximation.
j[ tɕ ]hatchNo equivalent in English. Like q, but unaspirated. Not the s in Asia, despite the common English pronunciation of "Beijing".
q[ tɕʰ ]cheekNo equivalent in English. Like cheek, with the lips spread wide with ee. Curl the tip of the tongue downwards to stick it at the back of the teeth and strongly aspirate.
x[ ɕ ]sheNo equivalent in English. Like she, with the lips spread and the tip of your tongue curled downwards and stuck to the back of teeth when you say ee.
zh[ tʂ ]junkRather like ch (a sound between choke, joke, true, and drew, tongue tip curled more upwards). Voiced in a toneless syllable.
ch[ tʂʰ ]churchas in chin, but with the tongue curled upwards; very similar to nurture in American English, but strongly aspirated.
sh[ ʂ ]shirtas in shoe, but with the tongue curled upwards; very similar to marsh in American English
r[ ʐ ], [ ɻ ]raySimilar to the English z in azure and r in reduce, but with the tongue curled upwards, like a cross between English "r" and French "j". In Cyrillised Chinese the sound is rendered with the letter "ж".
z[ ts ]readsunaspirated c, similar to something between suds and cats; as in suds in a toneless syllable
c[ tsʰ ]hatslike the English ts in cats, but strongly aspirated, very similar to the Czech and Polish c.
s[ s ]sayas in sun
y[ j ], [ ɥ ]yeaas in yes. Before a u, pronounce it with rounded lips.*
w[ w ]wayas in water.*
v[ v ]vitaminas in very.

Vowels

Pinyin IPA Form with zero initial Explanation
a[ɑ]aas in "father"
o[ɔ](n/a)Approximately as in "office" in British accent; the lips are much more rounded.
e[ɯ̯ʌ], [ə]ea diphthong consisting first of a back, unrounded semivowel (which can be formed by first pronouncing "w" and then spreading the lips without changing the position of the tongue) followed by a vowel similar to English "duh". Many unstressed syllables in Chinese use the schwa [ə] (idea), and this is also written as e.
i[i]yilike English bee.
u[u]wulike English "oo"
ai[aɪ̯]ailike English "eye", but a bit lighter
ei[eɪ̯]eias in "hey"
ui[u̯eɪ̯]weias u + ei;
ao[ɑʊ̯]aoapproximately as in "cow"; the a is much more audible than the o
iu[i̯ɤʊ̯]youas i + ou
ie[i̯ɛ]yeas i + ê; but is very short; e (pronounced like ê) is pronounced longer and carries the main stress (similar to the initial sound ye in yet)
an[an]anas in "ban" in British English (a more open fronted a)
en[ən]enas in "taken"
in[in]yinas i + n
un[yn]yunas ü + n;
ang[ɑŋ]angas in German Angst (starts with the vowel sound in father and ends in the velar nasal; like song in some dialects of American English)
eng[əŋ]englike e in en above but with ng added to it at the back
ing[iŋ]yingas i + ng
ong[ʊŋ], [u̯əŋ]wengstarts with the vowel sound in book and ends with the velar nasal sound in sing; as u + eng in zero initial.

Sample texts

Here is given an excerpt of the "kiš yiγen ġadïn kiš" ("people-eating woman") story from Ma Wei, Ma Jianzhong & Kevin Stuart's work The Folklore of China's Islamic Salar Nationality. [58] [59]

Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. [60]

Heme kishler hür der, haysiyet ma haklarde adil der, mantik ma vicdan var, kardeshlikden davraneshge.

Notes

  1. ↑ Salar at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
  2. ↑ Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World. Contributors Keith Brown, Sarah Ogilvie (revised ed.). Elsevier. 2010. p. 1109. ISBN   978-0080877754 . Retrieved 24 April 2014.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  3. ↑ Olson, James Stuart (1998). An Ethnohistorical Dictionary of China. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 297. ISBN   978-0313288531 . Retrieved 24 April 2014.
  4. ↑ Roos, Marti (1998). "Preaspiration in Western Yugur monosyllables". In Johanson, Lars (ed.). The Mainz Meeting: Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference on Turkish Linguistics, August 3–6, 1994. Turcologica Series. Contributor Éva Ágnes Csató. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 28. ISBN   978-3447038645 . Retrieved 24 April 2014.
  5. 1 2 Martí, Fèlix; et al. (2005). Words and worlds: world languages review (illustrated ed.). Multilingual Matters. p. 123. ISBN   978-1-85359-827-2 . Retrieved 2011-06-03.
  6. 1 2 3 Ethnologue.com :report for language code:slr
  7. ↑ Erdal, Marcel; Nevskaya, Irina, eds. (2006). Exploring the Eastern Frontiers of Turkic. Vol. 60 of Turcologica Series. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. xi. ISBN   978-3447053105 . Retrieved 24 April 2014.
  8. ↑ "China's Minority Peoples - The Salars". Cultural-china.com. Cultural China. 2007–2014. Archived from the original on 5 October 2013. Retrieved 1 April 2013.
  9. ↑ Erdal, Marcel (2015). "Ana Oğuzca Ve Selçuklu Oğuzcasi". 5. Uluslararası Türkiyat Araştırmaları Sempozyumu Bildirileri.
  10. ↑ "Glottolog 4.4 - Salar". glottolog.org. Retrieved 2021-07-27.
  11. ↑ Turkic Languages, Volumes 1–2. Harrassowitz Verlag. 1998. pp. 50, 55, 62. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
  12. ↑ Johanson, Lars; Csató, Éva, eds. (1998). The Turkic Languages. Vol. 60 of Turcologica Series (illustrated, reprint ed.). Taylor & Francis. p. 400. ISBN   978-0415082006 . Retrieved 24 April 2014.
  13. ↑ Dwyer (2007 : 21 )
  14. ↑ Dwyer (2007 : 90 )
  15. 1 2 Dwyer (2007 :96)
  16. ↑ Dwyer (2007 :121)
  17. ↑ Dwyer (2007 : 116 )
  18. ↑ Dwyer (2007 : 212 )
  19. ↑ Johanson, Lars; Utas, Bo, eds. (2000). Evidentials: Turkic, Iranian and Neighbouring Languages. Vol. 24 of Empirical approaches to language typology. Walter de Gruyter. p. 58. ISBN   978-3110161588. ISSN   0933-761X . Retrieved 24 April 2014.
  20. ↑ William Safran (1998). William Safran (ed.). Nationalism and ethnoregional identities in China. Vol. 1 of Cass series—nationalism and ethnicity (illustrated ed.). Psychology Press. p. 72. ISBN   978-0-7146-4921-4 . Retrieved 2010-06-28.
  21. ↑ Raymond Hickey (2010). Raymond Hickey (ed.). The Handbook of Language Contact (illustrated ed.). John Wiley and Sons. p. 664. ISBN   978-1-4051-7580-7 . Retrieved 2010-06-28.
  22. ↑ Raymond Hickey (2010). Raymond Hickey (ed.). The Handbook of Language Contact (illustrated ed.). John Wiley and Sons. p. 664. ISBN   978-1-4051-7580-7 . Retrieved 2010-06-28.
  23. ↑ Hickey, Raymond, ed. (2010). The Handbook of Language Contact (illustrated ed.). John Wiley & Sons. p. 665. ISBN   978-1405175807 . Retrieved 24 April 2014.
  24. 1 2 Lin, Lianyun (1985). 撒拉语简志 [A Brief History of Salar] (in Chinese). Beijing: 民族出版社. p. 8. 9049•41.
  25. ↑ Göksel, Aslı; Kerslake, Celia, eds. (2000). Studies on Turkish and Turkic Languages: Proceedings of the Ninth International Conference on Turkish Linguistics, Lincoln College, Oxford, August 12–14, 1998. Vol. 46 of Turcologica Series (illustrated ed.). Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 201. ISBN   978-3447042932 . Retrieved 24 April 2014.
  26. ↑ Hahn, Reinhard F. (1988). "Notes on the Origin and Development of the Salar Language". Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae. 42 (2/3): 248, 259, 260. JSTOR   23657773.
  27. ↑ Dwyer (2007 : 79 )
  28. ↑ Boeschoten, Hendrik; Rentzsch, Julian, eds. (2010). Turcology in Mainz. Vol. 82 of Turcologica Series. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 279. ISBN   978-3447061131 . Retrieved 1 April 2013.
  29. ↑ Dwyer (2007 : 77 )
  30. ↑ Dwyer (2007 : 82 )
  31. ↑ Dwyer (2007 : 86 )
  32. ↑ "Salar: Jiezi dil". globalrecordings.net (in Turkish). Retrieved 2022-09-14.
  33. 1 2 3 4 马伟 (Ma Wei); 朝克 (Chao Ke) (2016), in  濒危语言——撒拉语研究 [Endangered Languages - Salar Language Studies], 青海 (Qinghai): 国家社会科学基金项目 (National Social Science Foundation Project), pp. 86-95, 263
  34. ↑ Kaşgarli, Raile ABDULVAHİT (2018-04-29). "SALAR TÜRKÇESİNDEKİ ÇİNCE UNSURLAR". Littera Turca Journal of Turkish Language and Literature (in Turkish). 4 (2): 428–445. doi: 10.20322/littera.409800 .
  35. ↑ Tenishev, Edhem (1976), in Stroj salárskovo jazyká [Grammar of Salar], Moscow: Nauka, p. 250
  36. ↑ Yakup, Abdurishid (2002). An Ili Salar Vocabulary: Introduction and a Provisional Salar-English Lexicon. Tokyo: University of Tokyo. ISBN   9784903875040.
  37. ↑ Guo, Rongxing (2012). Understanding the Chinese Economies. Academic Press. p. 39. ISBN   978-0123978264 . Retrieved 1 April 2013.
  38. ↑ "The Salar Nationality". cultural-china.com. Cultural China. 2007–2014. Archived from the original on 23 September 2012. Retrieved 1 April 2013.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  39. ↑ "China's Minority Peoples – The Salars". cultural-china.com. Cultural China. 2007–2014. Archived from the original on 22 May 2012. Retrieved 1 April 2013.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  40. ↑ Embree, Ainslie Thomas; Lewis, Robin Jeanne (1988). Embree, Ainslie Thomas (ed.). Encyclopedia of Asian history. Vol. 4 (2 ed.). Scribner. p. 154. ISBN   978-0-684-18901-7.
  41. ↑ Safran (1998). Nationalism and Ethnoregional Identities in China (illustrated ed.). London: Frank Cass. p. 77. ISBN   0-7146-4921-X.
  42. ↑ Evans, Thammy (2006). Great Wall of China: Beijing & Northern China (illustrated ed.). Bradt Travel Guides. p. 42. ISBN   978-1-84162-158-6.
  43. ↑ Dwyer (2007 :91)
  44. ↑ Potanin, Grigory Nikolayevich (Григорий Николаевич Потанин) (1893). Tangutsko-Tibetskaya okraina Kitaya i Tsentralnaya Mongoliya: puteshestvie G.N. Potanina 1884–1886Тангутско-Тибетская окраина Китая и Центральная Монголія: путешествіе Г.Н. Потанина 1884–1886. Typ. A. S. Suvoryna. pp. 1–.
  45. ↑ Potanin, Grigory Nikolayevich (Григорий Николаевич Потанин) (1893). Tangutsko-Tibetskaya okraina Kitaya i Tsentralnaya Mongoliya: puteshestvie G.N. Potanina 1884–1886Тангутско-Тибетская окраина Китая и Центральная Монголія: путешествіе Г.Н. Потанина 1884–1886. Typ. A. S. Suvoryna. pp. 426–.
  46. ↑ Potanin, Grigory Nikolayevich (Григорий Николаевич Потанин) (1893). Tangutsko-Tibetskaya okraina Kitaya i Tsentralnaya Mongoliya: puteshestvie G.N. Potanina 1884–1886Тангутско-Тибетская окраина Китая и Центральная Монголія: путешествіе Г.Н. Потанина 1884–1886. Vol. 2. Typ. A. S. Suvoryna. p. 426.
  47. ↑ "Yugurology". The Western Yugur Steppe. Archived from the original on October 5, 2003.
  48. ↑ Potanin, Grigory Nikolayevich (Григорий Николаевич Потанин) (1893). Tangutsko-Tibetskaya okraina Kitaya i Tsentralnaya Mongoliya: puteshestvie G.N. Potanina 1884–1886Тангутско-Тибетская окраина Китая и Центральная Монголія: путешествіе Г.Н. Потанина 1884–1886. Typ. A. S. Suvoryna.
  49. ↑ Potanin, Grigory Nikolayevich (Григорий Николаевич Потанин) (1893). Tangutsko-Tibetskaya okraina Kitaya i Tsentralnaya Mongoliya: puteshestvie G.N. Potanina 1884–1886Тангутско-Тибетская окраина Китая и Центральная Монголія: путешествіе Г.Н. Потанина 1884–1886. Vol. 2. Typ. A. S. Suvoryna.
  50. ↑ Potanin, Grigory Nikolayevich (Григорий Николаевич Потанин) (1893). Tangutsko-Tibetskaya okraina Kitaya i Tsentralnaya Mongoliya: puteshestvie G.N. Potanina 1884–1886Тангутско-Тибетская окраина Китая и Центральная Монголія: путешествіе Г.Н. Потанина 1884–1886. Typ. A. S. Suvoryna.
  51. ↑ Poppe, Nicholas (1953). "Remarks on the Salar Language" (PDF). Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies. 16 (3/4): 438–477. doi:10.2307/2718250. JSTOR   2718250. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-03-16.
  52. ↑ Poppe, Nicholas (1953). "Remarks on the Salar Language" (PDF). Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies. 16 (3/4): 438–477. doi:10.2307/2718250. JSTOR   2718250. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-03-16.
  53. ↑ William Woodville Rockhill (1894). Diary of a Journey Through Mongolia and Tibet in 1891 and 1892. Smithsonian Institution. pp.  373–376.
  54. ↑ Rockhill, W. W. (1892). "[Letter from W. W. Rockhill]". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland: 598–602. JSTOR   25197112.
  55. ↑ Ma, Quanlin; Ma, Wanxiang; Ma, Zhicheng (1993). Stuart, Kevin (ed.). Salar Language Materials (PDF). Sino-Platonic Papers, No. 43. Philadelphia, PA: Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations University of Pennsylvania. p. 3. Retrieved September 30, 2012.
  56. ↑ Ma, Quanlin; Ma, Wanxiang; Ma, Zhicheng (1993). Stuart, Kevin (ed.). Salar Language Materials (PDF). Sino-Platonic Papers, No. 43. Philadelphia, PA: Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations University of Pennsylvania. p. 3. Retrieved September 30, 2012.
  57. ↑ Ma, Quanlin; Ma, Wanxiang; Ma, Zhicheng (1993). Stuart, Kevin (ed.). Salar Language Materials (PDF). Sino-Platonic Papers, No. 43. Philadelphia, PA: Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations University of Pennsylvania. p. 3. Retrieved September 30, 2012.
  58. ↑ Ma, Wei; Ma, Jianzhong; Stuart, Kevin (2001). The Folklore of China's Islamic Salar Nationality. Lewiston, NY: E. Mellen Press. OCLC   606504539.
  59. ↑ Robbeets, Martin; Cuyckens, Hubert, eds. (2013). Shared Grammaticalization: With Special Focus on the Transeurasian Languages. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. pp. 248–249. ISBN   978-90-272-0599-5. OCLC   875771914.
  60. ↑ "OHCHR | Universal Declaration of Human Rights - Salar". www.ohchr.org. Retrieved 13 August 2023.

Sources

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Naimans</span> 12th-century tribal confederation of the Mongolian Plateau

The Naiman were a medieval tribe originating in the territory of modern Western Mongolia, and are one of the tribes of modern Mongols and in the middle juz of the Kazakh nation.

Old Turkic is the earliest attested form of the Common Turkic languages, first found in Second Turkic Khaganate then in Uyghur Khaganate inscriptions. In marked contrast to Middle Turkic, the geographic extent of (East) Old Turkic is rather confined, being limited mainly to East Turkistan and Mongolia. In terms of the datability of extant written sources, the period of Old Turkic can be dated from slightly before 720 AD to the Mongol invasions of the 13th century. Orkhon Turkic and Old Uyghur are considered to be dialects of East Old Turkic, Orkhon Turkic being the earliest attested dialect of (East) Old Turkic. There is a difference of opinion among linguists with regard to Karakhanid Turkic, some classify it as another dialect of East Old Turkic, while others prefer to include Karakhanid among Middle Turkic languages; nonetheless, Karakhanid is extremely close to Old Uyghur so much so that a single grammatical description will fit both of them. East Old Turkic and West Old Turkic together comprise the Old Turkic proper. East Old Turkic is the oldest attested member of the Siberian Turkic branch of Turkic languages, and several of its now-archaic grammatical as well as lexical features are extant in the modern Yellow Uyghur, Lop Nur Uyghur and Khalaj ; Khalaj, for instance, has (surprisingly) retained a considerable number of archaic Old Turkic words despite forming a language island within Central Iran and being heavily influenced by Persian. Old Uyghur is not a direct ancestor of the Modern Standard Uyghur language ; the contemporaneous ancestor of Modern Uyghur was one of the Middle Turkic languages, later giving rise to Chagatai literary language.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Xunhua Salar Autonomous County</span> Autonomous county in Qinghai, China

Xunhua Salar Autonomous County is an autonomous county in the southeast of Haidong Prefecture, in Qinghai province, China. The autonomous county has an area of around 2,100 square kilometres (810 sq mi), and a population of approximately 161,600 inhabitants per a 2022 government publication. In the east it borders the province of Gansu and in the south and the west Huangnan Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture. Its postal code is 811100 and its capital is the town of Jishi.

Western Yugur also known as Neo-Uygur is the Turkic language spoken by the Yugur people. It is contrasted with Eastern Yugur, a Mongolic language spoken within the same community. Traditionally, both languages are indicated by the term "Yellow Uygur", from the endonym of the Yugur.

Eastern Yugur is the Mongolic language spoken within the Yugur nationality. The other language spoken within the same community is Western Yughur, which is a Turkic language. The terms may also indicate the speakers of these languages, which are both unwritten. Traditionally, both languages are indicated by the term Yellow Uygur, from the autonym of the Yugur. Eastern Yugur speakers are said to have passive bilingualism with Inner Mongolian, the standard spoken in China.

The Turkic migrations were the spread of Turkic tribes and Turkic languages across Eurasia between the 6th and 11th centuries. In the 6th century, the Göktürks overthrew the Rouran Khaganate in what is now Mongolia and expanded in all directions, spreading Turkic culture throughout the Eurasian steppes. Although Göktürk empires came to an end in the 8th century, they were succeeded by numerous Turkic empires such as the Uyghur Khaganate, Kara-Khanid Khanate, Khazars, and the Cumans. Some Turks eventually settled down into sedentary societies such as the Qocho and Ganzhou Uyghurs. The Seljuq dynasty settled in Anatolia starting in the 11th century, resulting in permanent Turkic settlement and presence there. Modern nations with large Turkic populations include Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, Turkey, Azerbaijan, Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan, and Turkic populations also exist within other nations, such as Chuvashia, Bashkortostan, Tatarstan and the Sakha Republic of Siberia in Russia, Northern Cyprus, the Crimean Tatars, the Kazakhs in Mongolia, the Uyghurs in China, and the Azeris in Iran.

Old Uyghur was a Turkic language which was spoken in Qocho from the 9th–14th centuries as well as in Gansu.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Salur (tribe)</span> Ancient Oghuz Turkmen tribe

Salur, Salyr or Salgur was an ancient Oghuz Turkic tribe and a sub-branch of the Üçok tribal federation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Grigory Potanin</span> Russian explorer and orientalist (1835–1920)

Grigory Nikolayevich Potanin was a Russian botanist, ethnographer, and natural historian. He was an explorer of Inner Asia and was the first to catalogue many of the area's native plants. Potanin was also an author and a political activist who aligned himself with the Siberian independence movement.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ili Rebellion</span> 1944–1946 uprising in northern Xinjiang, China

The Ili Rebellion was a separatist uprising by the Turkic peoples of northern Xinjiang against the Kuomintang government of the Republic of China, from 1944 to 1946. The Ili Rebellion began with the East Turkestan National Revolution, known in Chinese historiography as the Three Districts Revolution, which saw the establishment of the Second East Turkestan Republic. The leadership was dominated by Uyghurs but the population consisted mostly of Kazakhs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kuomintang Islamic insurgency</span> Continuation of Chinese Civil War by Chinese Muslims

The Kuomintang Islamic insurgency was a continuation of the Chinese Civil War by Chinese Muslim Kuomintang Republic of China Army forces mainly in Northwest China, in the provinces of Gansu, Qinghai, Ningxia, and Xinjiang, and another insurgency in Yunnan.

Khoton is a dialect of Uyghur language in the Karluk group of Turkic languages. Khoton learners are decreasing every year and considered an extinct language. Khotons use Oirat dialect of Mongolic languages in daily life.

Lars Johanson is a Swedish Turcologist and linguist, an emeritus professor at the University of Mainz, and docent at the Department of Linguistics and Philology, University of Uppsala, Sweden.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Turkic history</span> History of the Turkic peoples

Turkic history is the systematic documentation and study of events involving the Turkic peoples.

Edkhyam Rakhimovich Tenishev was a Soviet and Russian linguist who specialized in Turkic and Mongolic languages. He was a doctor of philology, a professor, and a corresponding member of the Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union. He served as the head of the Department of Uralic and Altaic languages at the Institute of Linguistics of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He was editor-in-chief of the journal Советская тюркология(Soviet Turcology) ISSN 0131-677X and of the multi-volume publication Сравнительно-историческая грамматика тюркских языков .

The Qinghai–Gansu sprachbund or Amdo sprachbund is a sprachbund in the plateau traversed by the upper Yellow River, including northeastern Qinghai and southern Gansu. This has long been an area of interaction between speakers of northwestern varieties of Mandarin Chinese, Amdo Tibetan and Mongolic and Turkic languages. These families feature contrasting typologies, which spread between languages in the region. The languages have come to share many features, and differ significantly from their relatives outside the region.

References

  1. ↑ Johanson, Lars; Utas, Bo, eds. (2000). Evidentials: Turkic, Iranian and Neighbouring Languages. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. p. 59. ISBN   3-11-016158-3.
  2. ↑ Yakup, Abdurishid (2005). The Turfan Dialect of Uyghur (illustrated ed.). Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 479. ISBN   3-447-05233-3.
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