Formosan languages

Last updated
Formosan
(geographic)
Ethnicity Taiwanese Aborigines (Formosan people)
Geographic
distribution		 Taiwan
Linguistic classification Austronesian
  • Formosan
Subdivisions
ISO 639-5 fox
Glottolog None
Formosan languages en.svg
Families of Formosan languages before Chinese colonization, per Blust (1999). Malayo-Polynesian (red) may lie within Eastern Formosan (purple). The white section is unattested; some maps fill it in with Luiyang, Kulon or as generic 'Ketagalan'. [1]

The Formosan languages are a geographic grouping comprising the languages of the indigenous peoples of Taiwan, all of which are Austronesian. They do not form a single subfamily of Austronesian but rather up to nine separate primary subfamilies. The Taiwanese indigenous peoples recognized by the government are about 2.3% of the island's population. However, only 35% speak their ancestral language, due to centuries of language shift. [2] Of the approximately 26 languages of the Taiwanese indigenous peoples, at least ten are extinct, another four (perhaps five) are moribund, [3] [4] and all others are to some degree endangered.

Contents

The aboriginal languages of Taiwan have great significance in historical linguistics since, in all likelihood, Taiwan is the place of origin of the entire Austronesian language family. According to American linguist Robert Blust, the Formosan languages form nine of the ten principal branches of the family, [5] while the one remaining principal branch, Malayo-Polynesian, contains nearly 1,200 Austronesian languages found outside Taiwan. [6] Although some other linguists disagree with some details of Blust's analysis, a broad consensus has coalesced around the conclusion that the Austronesian languages originated in Taiwan, [7] and the theory has been strengthened by recent studies in human population genetics. [8]

Recent history

All Formosan languages are slowly being replaced by the culturally dominant Taiwanese Mandarin. In recent decades the Taiwan government started an aboriginal reappreciation program that included the reintroduction of Formosan first languages in Taiwanese schools. However, the results of this initiative have been disappointing. [9]

In 2005, in order to help with the preservation of the languages of the indigenous people of Taiwan, the council established a Romanized writing system for all of Taiwan's aboriginal languages. The council has also helped with classes and language certification programs for members of the indigenous community and the non-Formosan Taiwanese to help the conservation movement. [10]

Classification

Formosan languages form nine distinct branches of the Austronesian language family (with all other Malayo-Polynesian languages forming the tenth branch of the Austronesian).

List of languages

It is often difficult to decide where to draw the boundary between a language and a dialect, causing some minor disagreement among scholars regarding the inventory of Formosan languages. There is even more uncertainty regarding possible extinct or assimilated Formosan peoples. Frequently cited examples of Formosan languages are given below, [11] but the list should not be considered exhaustive.

Living languages

Language Code No. of
dialects		DialectsNotes
Amis ami 5'Amisay a Pangcah, Siwkolan, Pasawalian, Farangaw, Palidaw
Atayal tay 6Squliq, Skikun, Ts'ole', Ci'uli, Mayrinax, Plngawanhigh dialect diversity, sometimes considered separate languages
Bunun bnn 5Takitudu, Takibakha, Takivatan, Takbanuaz, Isbukunhigh dialect diversity
Kanakanavu xnb 1moribund
Kavalan ckv 1listed in some sources [3] as moribund, though further analysis may show otherwise [12]
Paiwan pwn 4Eastern, Northern, Central, Southern
Puyuma pyu 4Puyuma, Katratripul, Ulivelivek, Kasavakan
Rukai dru 6Ngudradrekay, Taromak Drekay, Teldreka, Thakongadavane, 'Oponoho
Saaroa sxr 1moribund
Saisiyat xsy 1
Sakizaya szy 1
Seediq trv 3Tgdaya, Toda, (Truku)
Thao ssf 1moribund
Truku trv 1
Tsou tsu 1
Yami/Tao tao 1also called Tao. Linguistically, not a member of the "Formosan languages", but a Malayo-Polynesian language.

Extinct languages

Language Code No. of
dialects		DialectsExtinction date & notes
Basay byq 1Mid-20th century
Babuza bzg 3?Babuza, Takoas, Favorlang (?).Late 19th century. Ongoing revival efforts.
Kulon uon 1Mid-20th century
Pazeh pzh 2Pazeh, Kaxabu2010. Ongoing revival efforts.
Ketagalan kae 1Mid-20th century
Papora ppu 2?Papora, Hoanya (?).
Siraya fos 2?Siraya, Makatao (?).Late 19th century. Ongoing revival efforts.
Taivoan tvx 1Late 19th century. Ongoing revival efforts.

Grammar

Verbs typically are not inflected for person or number, but do inflect for tense, mood, voice and aspect. Formosan languages are unusual in their use of the symmetrical voice, in which a noun is marked with the direct case while the verb affix indicates its role in the sentence. This can be seen as a generalisation of the active and passive voices, and is considered a unique morphosyntactic alignment. Furthermore, adverbs are not a unique category of words, but are instead expressed by coverbs.

Nouns are not marked for number and do not have grammatical gender. Noun cases are typically marked by particles rather than inflecting the word itself.

In terms of word order, most Formosan languages display verb-initial word order—VSO (verb-subject-object) or VOS (verb-object-subject)—with the exception of some Northern Formosan languages, such as Thao, Saisiyat, and Pazih, possibly from influence from Chinese.

Li (1998) lists the word orders of several Formosan languages. [13]

Sound changes

Tanan Rukai is the Formosan language with the largest number of phonemes with 23 consonants and 4 vowels containing length contrast, while Kanakanavu and Saaroa have the fewest phonemes with 13 consonants and 4 vowels. [14]

Wolff

The tables below list the Proto-Austronesian reflexes of individual languages given by Wolff (2010). [15]

PAn reflexes in Northwest Formosan languages
Proto-AustronesianPazihSaisiatThaoAtayalic
*ppppp
*tt, st, s, ʃt, θt, c (s)
*cz [dz]htx, h
*kkkkk
*qØʔqq, ʔ
*bbbfb-
*ddrsr
*jdrsr
*gk-, -z- [dz], -tk-, -z- [ð], -z [ð]k-, -ð-, -ðk- [16]
*ɣxl [ḷ] (> Ø in Tonghœʔ)ɬɣ, r, Ø
*mmmmm
*nnnnn
*ŋŋŋnŋ
*ssʃʃs
*hhhØh
*lrl [ḷ] (> Ø in Tonghœʔ)rl
*ɬlɬðl
*wwwww
*yyyyy
PAn reflexes in non-Northwest Formosan languages
Proto-AustronesianSaaroaKanakanavuRukaiBununAmisKavalanPuyumaPaiwan
*ppppppppp
*tt, ct, ct, ctttt, ʈtj [č], ts [c]
*cs, Øcθ, s, Øc ([s] in Central & South)csst
*kkkkkkk, qkk
*qØʔØq (x in Ishbukun)ɦØɦq
*bvv [β]bbfbv [β]v
*dscḍdrzd, zdj [j], z
*jscddrzd, zdj [j], z
*gk-, -ɬ-k-, -l-, -lgk-, -Ø-, -Øk-, -n-, -nk-, -n-, -nh-, -d-, -dg-, -d-, -d
*ɣrrr, Øll [ḷ]ɣrØ
*mmmmmmmmm
*nnnnnnnnn
*ŋŋŋŋŋŋŋŋŋ
*sØssssØØs
*hØØØØhØØØ
*lØØ, lñh-, -Ø-, -Øl [ḷ]r, ɣl [ḷ]l
*ɬɬnɬnɬnɬɬ
*wØØvvwwww
*yɬlððyyyy
PAn reflexes in Malayo-Polynesian languages
Proto-AustronesianTagalogChamorroMalayOld Javanese
*ppfpp
*ttttt
*cssss
*kkhkk
*qʔʔhh
*bbpb, -pb, w
*dd-, -l-, -dhd, -tḍ, r
*jd-, -l-, -dchj, -td
*gk-, -l-, -dØd-, -r-, -rg-, -r-, -r
*ɣggrØ
*mmmmm
*nnnnn
*ŋŋŋŋŋ
*shØhh
*hØØØØ
*lllll
*ɬnñ, n, ll-/ñ-, -ñ-/-n-, -nn
*wwwØ, ww
*yyyyy

Blust

The following table lists reflexes of Proto-Austronesian *j in various Formosan languages (Blust 2009:572).

Reflexes of Proto-Austronesian *j
LanguageReflex
TsouØ
Kanakanavul
Saaroaɬ (-ɬ- only)
Puyumad
Paiwand
BununØ
Atayalr (in Squliq), g (sporadic), s (sporadic)
Sediqy (-y- only), c (-c only)
Pazehz ([dz]) (-z- only), d (-d only)
Saisiyatz ([ð])
Thaoz ([ð])
Amisn
Kavalann
Sirayan

The following table lists reflexes of Proto-Austronesian *ʀ in various Formosan languages (Blust 2009:582).

Reflexes of Proto-Austronesian *ʀ
LanguageReflex
PaiwanØ
Bununl
Kavalanʀ (contrastive uvular rhotic)
Basayl
Amisl
Atayalg; r (before /i/)
Sediqr
Pazehx
Taokasl
Thaolh (voiceless lateral)
SaisiyatL (retroflex flap)
Bashiic (extra-Formosan)y

Lenition patterns include (Blust 2009:604-605):

Distributions

Information

Li (2001) lists the geographical homelands for the following Formosan languages. [17]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Austronesian languages</span> Large language family mostly of Southeast Asia and the Pacific

The Austronesian languages are a language family widely spoken throughout Maritime Southeast Asia, parts of Mainland Southeast Asia, Madagascar, the islands of the Pacific Ocean and Taiwan. They are spoken by about 328 million people. This makes it the fifth-largest language family by number of speakers. Major Austronesian languages include Malay, Javanese, Sundanese, Tagalog, Malagasy and Cebuano. According to some estimates, the family contains 1,257 languages, which is the second most of any language family.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Basay language</span> Extinct Formosan language of northern Taiwan

Basay was a Formosan language spoken around modern-day Taipei in northern Taiwan by the Basay, Qauqaut, and Trobiawan peoples. Trobiawan, Linaw, and Qauqaut were other dialects.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bunun language</span> Formosan language of Taiwan

The Bunun language is spoken by the Bunun people of Taiwan. It is one of the Formosan languages, a geographic group of Austronesian languages, and is subdivided in five dialects: Isbukun, Takbunuaz, Takivatan, Takibaka and Takituduh. Isbukun, the dominant dialect, is mainly spoken in the south of Taiwan. Takbunuaz and Takivatan are mainly spoken in the center of the country. Takibaka and Takituduh both are northern dialects. A sixth dialect, Takipulan, became extinct in the 1970s.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Saisiyat language</span> Austronesian language spoken in Taiwan

Saisiyat is the language of the Saisiyat, a Taiwanese indigenous people. It is a Formosan language of the Austronesian family. It has approximately 4,750 speakers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kavalan language</span> East Formosan language of Taiwan

Kavalan was formerly spoken in the Northeast coast area of Taiwan by the Kavalan people (噶瑪蘭). It is an East Formosan language of the Austronesian family.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tsou language</span> Austronesian language

Tsou is a Austronesian language spoken by the Tsou people of Taiwan. Tsou is a threatened language; however, this status is uncertain. Its speakers are located in the west-central mountains southeast of the Chiayi/Alishan area in Taiwan.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rukai language</span> Formosan language spoken in Taiwan

Rukai is a Formosan language spoken by the Rukai people in Taiwan. It is a member of the Austronesian language family. The Rukai language comprises six dialects, which are Budai, Labuan, Maga, Mantauran, Tanan and Tona. The number of speakers of the six Rukai dialects is estimated to be about 10,000. Some of them are monolingual. There are varying degrees of mutual intelligibility among the Rukai dialects. Rukai is notable for its distinct grammatical voice system among the Formosan languages.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Thao language</span> Extinct Austronesian language of Taiwan

Thao, also known as Sao, is the nearly extinct language of the Thao people, an indigenous people of Taiwan from the Sun Moon Lake region in central Taiwan. It is a Formosan language of the Austronesian family; Barawbaw and Shtafari are dialects.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pazeh language</span> Northwest Formosan language of Taiwan

Pazeh and Kaxabu are dialects of an extinct language of the Pazeh and Kaxabu, neighboring Taiwanese indigenous peoples. The language was Formosan, of the Austronesian language family. The last remaining native speaker of the Pazeh dialect died in 2010.

Kanakanavu is a Southern Tsouic language spoken by the Kanakanavu people, an indigenous people of Taiwan. It is a Formosan language of the Austronesian family.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Saaroa language</span> Austronesian language spoken in Taiwan

Saaroa or Lhaʼalua is a Southern Tsouic language spoken by the Saaroa (Hla'alua) people, an indigenous people of Taiwan. It is a Formosan language of the Austronesian family.

Proto-Austronesian is a proto-language. It is the reconstructed ancestor of the Austronesian languages, one of the world's major language families. Proto-Austronesian is assumed to have begun to diversify c. 4000 BCE – c. 3500 BCE in Taiwan.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Robert Blust</span> American linguist (1940–2022)

Robert A. Blust was an American linguist who worked in several areas, including historical linguistics, lexicography and ethnology. He was Professor of Linguistics at the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa. Blust specialized in the Austronesian languages and made major contributions to the field of Austronesian linguistics.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tsouic languages</span> Language family

The Tsouic languages are three Formosan languages, Tsou proper and the Southern languages Kanakanavu and Saaroa. The Southern Tsouic languages of Kanakanavu and Saaroa have the smallest phonemic inventories out of all the Formosan languages, with each language having only 13 consonants and 4 vowels. These two languages are highly endangered, as many Southern Tsouic speakers are shifting to Bunun and Mandarin Chinese.

The Atayalic languages are a group of Formosan languages spoken in northern Taiwan. Robert Blust considers them to form a primary branch within the Austronesian language family, However, Paul Jen-kuei Li groups them into the Northern Formosan branch, which includes the Northwestern Formosan languages.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Northern Formosan languages</span> Proposed grouping of Formosan languages

The Northern Formosan languages is a proposed grouping of Formosan languages that includes the Atayalic languages, the Western Plains languages, and the Northwest Formosan languages.

This article describes the personal pronoun systems of various Austronesian languages.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kulon language</span> Northwest Formosan language of Taiwan

Kulon is an extinct language of the Taiwanese aboriginal people that belonged to the Austronesian language family. Very little data is available for Kulon; the primary source is the 60 pages of Tsuchida (1985). Li (2008) follows Tsuchida in linking Kulon with Saisiyat, while Blust (1999) proposes it was more closely related to Pazeh.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sirayaic languages</span> One of the sub-branches of the Formosan languages

Sirayaic languages is one of the sub-branches of the Formosan branch, under the Austronesian languages family. Both Blust (1999) and Li (2010) considers Proto-Siraya belongs to East Formosan languages, along with Kavalanic and Amis languages.

References

Citations

  1. ↑ "Táiwān yuánzhùmín píngpǔ zúqún bǎinián fēnlèi shǐ xìliè dìtú" 臺灣原住民平埔族群百年分類史系列地圖 (A history of the classification of Plains Taiwanese tribes over the past century). blog.xuite.net (in Chinese). 2009-08-06. Retrieved 2017-03-04.
  2. ↑ Sui, Cindy (2010-07-14). "Taiwan Seeks to Save Indigenous Languages". BBC News.
  3. 1 2 Zeitoun, Elizabeth; Yu, Ching-Hua (2005). "The Formosan Language Archive: Linguistic Analysis and Language Processing". International Journal of Computational Linguistics and Chinese Language Processing. 10 (2): 167–200. doi:10.30019/ijclclp.200507.0002. S2CID   17976898.
  4. ↑ Li, Paul Jen-kuei; Tsuchida, Shigeru (2006). Kavalan Dictionary (PDF) (in English and Chinese). Taipei: Institute of Linguistics, Academia Sinica. ISBN   9789860069938. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2021-05-03.
  5. ↑ Blust, Robert (1999). "Subgrouping, Circularity and Extinction: Some Issues in Austronesian Comparative Linguistics". In Zeitoun, Elizabeth; Li, Jen-kuei (eds.). Selected Papers from the Eighth International Conference on Austronesian Linguistics. Taipei: Academia Sinica. ISBN   9789576716324.
  6. ↑ Diamond, Jared M. (2000). "Taiwan's Gift to the World". Nature. 403 (6771): 709–710. Bibcode:2000Natur.403..709D. doi: 10.1038/35001685 . PMID   10693781. S2CID   4379227.
  7. ↑ Fox, James (19–20 August 2004). Current Developments in Comparative Austronesian Studies. Symposium Austronesia, Pascasarjana Linguististik dan Kajian Budaya Universitas Udayana. ANU Research Publications. Bali. OCLC   677432806.
  8. ↑ Trejaut, Jean A; Kivisild, Toomas; Loo, Jun Hun; et al. (2005). "Traces of Archaic Mitochondrial Lineages Persist in Austronesian-Speaking Formosan Populations". PLOS Biology. 3 (8): e247. doi: 10.1371/journal.pbio.0030247 . PMC   1166350 . PMID   15984912.
  9. ↑ Huteson, Greg (2003). Sociolinguistic Survey Report for the Tona and Maga Dialects of the Rukai Language (PDF) (Report). Dallas, TX: SIL International. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-09-05.
  10. ↑ Hsu, Jenny W. (2010-06-07). "Aboriginal Language Classes Open to Public". Focus Taiwan. Archived from the original on 2014-11-29 – via galdu.org.
  11. ↑ Yuánzhùmínzú yǔyán yánjiū fāzhǎn zhōngxīn (2018). Yuánzhùmínzú yǔyán shūxiě xìtǒng jiànyì xiūzhèng bǎnběn bàogào 原住民族語言書寫系統建議修正版本報告 (PDF) (Report) (in Chinese).
  12. ↑ Li & Tsuchida (2006).
  13. ↑ Li, Paul Jen-kuei. (1998). "Táiwān nándǎo yǔyán 台灣南島語言 [The Austronesian Languages of Taiwan]." In Li, Paul Jen-kuei. (2004). Selected Papers on Formosan Languages. Taipei, Taiwan: Institute of Linguistics, Academia Sinica
  14. ↑ Blust (2009) , p. 165
  15. ↑ Wolff, John U. (2010). Proto-Austronesian Phonology with Glossary. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.
  16. ↑ There are several outcomes of *g as onset or coda of the final syllable.
  17. ↑ Li, Paul Jen-kuei (2001). "The Dispersal of the Formosan Aborigines in Taiwan" (PDF). Languages and Linguistics. 2 (1): 271–278. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2020-08-08. Retrieved 2020-06-02.

Sources

  • Blust, Robert A. (2009). The Austronesian languages. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, Australian National University. ISBN   978-0-85883-602-0. OCLC   320478203.

Further reading

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