Formosan | |
---|---|
(geographic) | |
Ethnicity | Taiwanese Aborigines (Formosan people) |
Geographic distribution | Taiwan |
Linguistic classification | Austronesian
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Subdivisions |
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ISO 639-5 | fox |
Glottolog | None |
![]() Families of Formosan languages before Chinese colonization, per Blust (1999). Malayo-Polynesian (red) may lie within Eastern Formosan (purple). The white section is unattested; some maps fill it in with Luiyang, Kulon or as generic 'Ketagalan'. [1] |
The Formosan languages are a geographic grouping comprising the languages of the indigenous peoples of Taiwan, all of which are Austronesian. They do not form a single subfamily of Austronesian but rather up to nine separate primary subfamilies. The Taiwanese indigenous peoples recognized by the government are about 2.3% of the island's population. However, only 35% speak their ancestral language, due to centuries of language shift. [2] Of the approximately 26 languages of the Taiwanese indigenous peoples, at least ten are extinct, another four (perhaps five) are moribund, [3] [4] and all others are to some degree endangered.
The aboriginal languages of Taiwan have great significance in historical linguistics since, in all likelihood, Taiwan is the place of origin of the entire Austronesian language family. According to American linguist Robert Blust, the Formosan languages form nine of the ten principal branches of the family, [5] while the one remaining principal branch, Malayo-Polynesian, contains nearly 1,200 Austronesian languages found outside Taiwan. [6] Although some other linguists disagree with some details of Blust's analysis, a broad consensus has coalesced around the conclusion that the Austronesian languages originated in Taiwan, [7] and the theory has been strengthened by recent studies in human population genetics. [8]
All Formosan languages are slowly being replaced by the culturally dominant Taiwanese Mandarin. In recent decades the Taiwan government started an aboriginal reappreciation program that included the reintroduction of Formosan first languages in Taiwanese schools. However, the results of this initiative have been disappointing. [9]
In 2005, in order to help with the preservation of the languages of the indigenous people of Taiwan, the council established a Romanized writing system for all of Taiwan's aboriginal languages. The council has also helped with classes and language certification programs for members of the indigenous community and the non-Formosan Taiwanese to help the conservation movement. [10]
Formosan languages form nine distinct branches of the Austronesian language family (with all other Malayo-Polynesian languages forming the tenth branch of the Austronesian).
It is often difficult to decide where to draw the boundary between a language and a dialect, causing some minor disagreement among scholars regarding the inventory of Formosan languages. There is even more uncertainty regarding possible extinct or assimilated Formosan peoples. Frequently cited examples of Formosan languages are given below, [11] but the list should not be considered exhaustive.
Language | Code | No. of dialects | Dialects | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|
Amis | ami | 5 | 'Amisay a Pangcah, Siwkolan, Pasawalian, Farangaw, Palidaw | |
Atayal | tay | 6 | Squliq, Skikun, Ts'ole', Ci'uli, Mayrinax, Plngawan | high dialect diversity, sometimes considered separate languages |
Bunun | bnn | 5 | Takitudu, Takibakha, Takivatan, Takbanuaz, Isbukun | high dialect diversity |
Kanakanavu | xnb | 1 | moribund | |
Kavalan | ckv | 1 | listed in some sources [3] as moribund, though further analysis may show otherwise [12] | |
Paiwan | pwn | 4 | Eastern, Northern, Central, Southern | |
Puyuma | pyu | 4 | Puyuma, Katratripul, Ulivelivek, Kasavakan | |
Rukai | dru | 6 | Ngudradrekay, Taromak Drekay, Teldreka, Thakongadavane, 'Oponoho | |
Saaroa | sxr | 1 | moribund | |
Saisiyat | xsy | 1 | ||
Sakizaya | szy | 1 | ||
Seediq | trv | 3 | Tgdaya, Toda, (Truku) | |
Thao | ssf | 1 | moribund | |
Truku | trv | 1 | ||
Tsou | tsu | 1 | ||
Yami/Tao | tao | 1 | also called Tao. Linguistically, not a member of the "Formosan languages", but a Malayo-Polynesian language. |
Language | Code | No. of dialects | Dialects | Extinction date & notes |
---|---|---|---|---|
Basay | byq | 1 | Mid-20th century | |
Babuza | bzg | 3? | Babuza, Takoas, Favorlang (?). | Late 19th century. Ongoing revival efforts. |
Kulon | uon | 1 | Mid-20th century | |
Pazeh | pzh | 2 | Pazeh, Kaxabu | 2010. Ongoing revival efforts. |
Ketagalan | kae | 1 | Mid-20th century | |
Papora | ppu | 2? | Papora, Hoanya (?). | |
Siraya | fos | 2? | Siraya, Makatao (?). | Late 19th century. Ongoing revival efforts. |
Taivoan | tvx | 1 | Late 19th century. Ongoing revival efforts. |
Verbs typically are not inflected for person or number, but do inflect for tense, mood, voice and aspect. Formosan languages are unusual in their use of the symmetrical voice, in which a noun is marked with the direct case while the verb affix indicates its role in the sentence. This can be seen as a generalisation of the active and passive voices, and is considered a unique morphosyntactic alignment. Furthermore, adverbs are not a unique category of words, but are instead expressed by coverbs.
Nouns are not marked for number and do not have grammatical gender. Noun cases are typically marked by particles rather than inflecting the word itself.
In terms of word order, most Formosan languages display verb-initial word order—VSO (verb-subject-object) or VOS (verb-object-subject)—with the exception of some Northern Formosan languages, such as Thao, Saisiyat, and Pazih, possibly from influence from Chinese.
Li (1998) lists the word orders of several Formosan languages. [13]
Tanan Rukai is the Formosan language with the largest number of phonemes with 23 consonants and 4 vowels containing length contrast, while Kanakanavu and Saaroa have the fewest phonemes with 13 consonants and 4 vowels. [14]
The tables below list the Proto-Austronesian reflexes of individual languages given by Wolff (2010). [15]
Proto-Austronesian | Pazih | Saisiat | Thao | Atayalic |
---|---|---|---|---|
*p | p | p | p | p |
*t | t, s | t, s, ʃ | t, θ | t, c (s) |
*c | z [dz] | h | t | x, h |
*k | k | k | k | k |
*q | Ø | ʔ | q | q, ʔ |
*b | b | b | f | b- |
*d | d | r | s | r |
*j | d | r | s | r |
*g | k-, -z- [dz], -t | k-, -z- [ð], -z [ð] | k-, -ð-, -ð | k- [16] |
*ɣ | x | l [ḷ] (> Ø in Tonghœʔ) | ɬ | ɣ, r, Ø |
*m | m | m | m | m |
*n | n | n | n | n |
*ŋ | ŋ | ŋ | n | ŋ |
*s | s | ʃ | ʃ | s |
*h | h | h | Ø | h |
*l | r | l [ḷ] (> Ø in Tonghœʔ) | r | l |
*ɬ | l | ɬ | ð | l |
*w | w | w | w | w |
*y | y | y | y | y |
Proto-Austronesian | Saaroa | Kanakanavu | Rukai | Bunun | Amis | Kavalan | Puyuma | Paiwan |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
*p | p | p | p | p | p | p | p | p |
*t | t, c | t, c | t, c | t | t | t | t, ʈ | tj [č], ts [c] |
*c | s, Ø | c | θ, s, Ø | c ([s] in Central & South) | c | s | s | t |
*k | k | k | k | k | k | k, q | k | k |
*q | Ø | ʔ | Ø | q (x in Ishbukun) | ɦ | Ø | ɦ | q |
*b | v | v [β] | b | b | f | b | v [β] | v |
*d | s | c | ḍ | d | r | z | d, z | dj [j], z |
*j | s | c | d | d | r | z | d, z | dj [j], z |
*g | k-, -ɬ- | k-, -l-, -l | g | k-, -Ø-, -Ø | k-, -n-, -n | k-, -n-, -n | h-, -d-, -d | g-, -d-, -d |
*ɣ | r | r | r, Ø | l | l [ḷ] | ɣ | r | Ø |
*m | m | m | m | m | m | m | m | m |
*n | n | n | n | n | n | n | n | n |
*ŋ | ŋ | ŋ | ŋ | ŋ | ŋ | ŋ | ŋ | ŋ |
*s | Ø | s | s | s | s | Ø | Ø | s |
*h | Ø | Ø | Ø | Ø | h | Ø | Ø | Ø |
*l | Ø | Ø, l | ñ | h-, -Ø-, -Ø | l [ḷ] | r, ɣ | l [ḷ] | l |
*ɬ | ɬ | n | ɬ | n | ɬ | n | ɬ | ɬ |
*w | Ø | Ø | v | v | w | w | w | w |
*y | ɬ | l | ð | ð | y | y | y | y |
Proto-Austronesian | Tagalog | Chamorro | Malay | Old Javanese |
---|---|---|---|---|
*p | p | f | p | p |
*t | t | t | t | t |
*c | s | s | s | s |
*k | k | h | k | k |
*q | ʔ | ʔ | h | h |
*b | b | p | b, -p | b, w |
*d | d-, -l-, -d | h | d, -t | ḍ, r |
*j | d-, -l-, -d | ch | j, -t | d |
*g | k-, -l-, -d | Ø | d-, -r-, -r | g-, -r-, -r |
*ɣ | g | g | r | Ø |
*m | m | m | m | m |
*n | n | n | n | n |
*ŋ | ŋ | ŋ | ŋ | ŋ |
*s | h | Ø | h | h |
*h | Ø | Ø | Ø | Ø |
*l | l | l | l | l |
*ɬ | n | ñ, n, l | l-/ñ-, -ñ-/-n-, -n | n |
*w | w | w | Ø, w | w |
*y | y | y | y | y |
The following table lists reflexes of Proto-Austronesian *j in various Formosan languages (Blust 2009:572).
Language | Reflex |
---|---|
Tsou | Ø |
Kanakanavu | l |
Saaroa | ɬ (-ɬ- only) |
Puyuma | d |
Paiwan | d |
Bunun | Ø |
Atayal | r (in Squliq), g (sporadic), s (sporadic) |
Sediq | y (-y- only), c (-c only) |
Pazeh | z ([dz]) (-z- only), d (-d only) |
Saisiyat | z ([ð]) |
Thao | z ([ð]) |
Amis | n |
Kavalan | n |
Siraya | n |
The following table lists reflexes of Proto-Austronesian *ʀ in various Formosan languages (Blust 2009:582).
Language | Reflex |
---|---|
Paiwan | Ø |
Bunun | l |
Kavalan | ʀ (contrastive uvular rhotic) |
Basay | l |
Amis | l |
Atayal | g; r (before /i/) |
Sediq | r |
Pazeh | x |
Taokas | l |
Thao | lh (voiceless lateral) |
Saisiyat | L (retroflex flap) |
Bashiic (extra-Formosan) | y |
Lenition patterns include (Blust 2009:604-605):
Li (2001) lists the geographical homelands for the following Formosan languages. [17]
The Austronesian languages are a language family widely spoken throughout Maritime Southeast Asia, parts of Mainland Southeast Asia, Madagascar, the islands of the Pacific Ocean and Taiwan. They are spoken by about 328 million people. This makes it the fifth-largest language family by number of speakers. Major Austronesian languages include Malay, Javanese, Sundanese, Tagalog, Malagasy and Cebuano. According to some estimates, the family contains 1,257 languages, which is the second most of any language family.
Basay was a Formosan language spoken around modern-day Taipei in northern Taiwan by the Basay, Qauqaut, and Trobiawan peoples. Trobiawan, Linaw, and Qauqaut were other dialects.
The Bunun language is spoken by the Bunun people of Taiwan. It is one of the Formosan languages, a geographic group of Austronesian languages, and is subdivided in five dialects: Isbukun, Takbunuaz, Takivatan, Takibaka and Takituduh. Isbukun, the dominant dialect, is mainly spoken in the south of Taiwan. Takbunuaz and Takivatan are mainly spoken in the center of the country. Takibaka and Takituduh both are northern dialects. A sixth dialect, Takipulan, became extinct in the 1970s.
Saisiyat is the language of the Saisiyat, a Taiwanese indigenous people. It is a Formosan language of the Austronesian family. It has approximately 4,750 speakers.
Kavalan was formerly spoken in the Northeast coast area of Taiwan by the Kavalan people (噶瑪蘭). It is an East Formosan language of the Austronesian family.
Tsou is a Austronesian language spoken by the Tsou people of Taiwan. Tsou is a threatened language; however, this status is uncertain. Its speakers are located in the west-central mountains southeast of the Chiayi/Alishan area in Taiwan.
Rukai is a Formosan language spoken by the Rukai people in Taiwan. It is a member of the Austronesian language family. The Rukai language comprises six dialects, which are Budai, Labuan, Maga, Mantauran, Tanan and Tona. The number of speakers of the six Rukai dialects is estimated to be about 10,000. Some of them are monolingual. There are varying degrees of mutual intelligibility among the Rukai dialects. Rukai is notable for its distinct grammatical voice system among the Formosan languages.
Thao, also known as Sao, is the nearly extinct language of the Thao people, an indigenous people of Taiwan from the Sun Moon Lake region in central Taiwan. It is a Formosan language of the Austronesian family; Barawbaw and Shtafari are dialects.
Pazeh and Kaxabu are dialects of an extinct language of the Pazeh and Kaxabu, neighboring Taiwanese indigenous peoples. The language was Formosan, of the Austronesian language family. The last remaining native speaker of the Pazeh dialect died in 2010.
Kanakanavu is a Southern Tsouic language spoken by the Kanakanavu people, an indigenous people of Taiwan. It is a Formosan language of the Austronesian family.
Saaroa or Lhaʼalua is a Southern Tsouic language spoken by the Saaroa (Hla'alua) people, an indigenous people of Taiwan. It is a Formosan language of the Austronesian family.
Proto-Austronesian is a proto-language. It is the reconstructed ancestor of the Austronesian languages, one of the world's major language families. Proto-Austronesian is assumed to have begun to diversify c. 4000 BCE – c. 3500 BCE in Taiwan.
Robert A. Blust was an American linguist who worked in several areas, including historical linguistics, lexicography and ethnology. He was Professor of Linguistics at the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa. Blust specialized in the Austronesian languages and made major contributions to the field of Austronesian linguistics.
The Tsouic languages are three Formosan languages, Tsou proper and the Southern languages Kanakanavu and Saaroa. The Southern Tsouic languages of Kanakanavu and Saaroa have the smallest phonemic inventories out of all the Formosan languages, with each language having only 13 consonants and 4 vowels. These two languages are highly endangered, as many Southern Tsouic speakers are shifting to Bunun and Mandarin Chinese.
The Atayalic languages are a group of Formosan languages spoken in northern Taiwan. Robert Blust considers them to form a primary branch within the Austronesian language family, However, Paul Jen-kuei Li groups them into the Northern Formosan branch, which includes the Northwestern Formosan languages.
The Northern Formosan languages is a proposed grouping of Formosan languages that includes the Atayalic languages, the Western Plains languages, and the Northwest Formosan languages.
This article describes the personal pronoun systems of various Austronesian languages.
Kulon is an extinct language of the Taiwanese aboriginal people that belonged to the Austronesian language family. Very little data is available for Kulon; the primary source is the 60 pages of Tsuchida (1985). Li (2008) follows Tsuchida in linking Kulon with Saisiyat, while Blust (1999) proposes it was more closely related to Pazeh.
Sirayaic languages is one of the sub-branches of the Formosan branch, under the Austronesian languages family. Both Blust (1999) and Li (2010) considers Proto-Siraya belongs to East Formosan languages, along with Kavalanic and Amis languages.