The Proto-Austronesian and Proto-Malayo-Polynesian personal pronouns below were reconstructed by Robert Blust. [1]
Proto-Austronesian and Proto-Malayo-Polynesian Pronouns| Type of Pronoun | English | Proto-Austronesian | Proto-Malayo-Polynesian |
|---|
| 1s. | "I" | *i-aku | *i-aku |
| 2s. | "you" | *i-(ka)Su | *i-kahu |
| 3s. | "he/she/it" | *si-ia | *si-ia |
| 1p. (inclusive) | "we (and you)" | *i-(k)ita | *i-(k)ita |
| 1p. (exclusive) | "we (but not you)" | *i-(k)ami | *i-(k)ami |
| 2p. | "you all" | *i-kamu | *i-kamu, ihu |
| 3p. | "they" | *si-ida | *si-ida |
In 2006, Malcolm Ross also proposed seven different pronominal categories for persons. The categories are listed below, with the Proto-Austronesian first person singular ("I") given as examples. [2]
- Neutral (e.g., PAN *i-aku)
- Nominative 1 (e.g., PAN *aku)
- Nominative 2 (e.g., PAN *=ku, *[S]aku)
- Accusative (e.g., PAN *i-ak-ən)
- Genitive 1 (e.g., PAN *=[a]ku)
- Genitive 2 (e.g., PAN *(=)m-aku)
- Genitive 3 (e.g., PAN *n-aku)
The following is from Ross' 2002 proposal of the Proto-Austronesian pronominal system, which contains five categories, including the free (i.e., independent or unattached), free polite, and three genitive categories.
Proto-Austronesian Personal Pronouns | Free | Free polite | Genitive 1 | Genitive 2 | Genitive 3 |
|---|
| 1s. | *[i-]aku | - | *=ku | *maku | *n-aku |
|---|
| 2s. | *[i-]Su | *[i-]ka-Su | *=Su | *miSu | *ni-Su |
|---|
| 3s. | *s(i)-ia | - | (*=ia) | - | *n(i)-ia |
|---|
| 1p. (excl.) | *i-ami | *[i-]k-ami | *=mi | *mami | *n(i)-ami |
|---|
| 1p. (incl.) | *([i])ita | *[i-]k-ita | *=ta | *mita | *n-ita |
|---|
| 2p. | *i-amu | *[i-]k-amu | *=mu | *mamu | *n(i)-amu |
|---|
| 3p. | *si-da | - | (*=da) | - | *ni-da |
|---|
Malayo-Polynesian languages
Ilokano personal pronouns distinguish three cases: absolutive, ergative, and oblique. They also distinguish three numbers: singular, dual and plural.
Accent marks in the following table are not written, but given here for pronunciation purposes.
Ilokano Personal Pronouns | Absolutive | Ergative | Oblique |
|---|
| Disjunctive | Enclitic (-ak) [21] | Enclitic (-ko) [22] | Disjunctive |
|---|
| 1st person singular | siák [23] | -ak [24] | -k(o) [25] [26] | kaniák |
|---|
| 1st person dual | datá, sitá [23] | -ta | -ta | kadatá |
|---|
| 2nd person singular | siká [23] | -ka | -m(o) [25] | kenká |
|---|
| 3rd person singular | isú(na) | -Ø [27] | -na | kenkuána |
|---|
| 1st person plural inclusive | datayó, sitayó [23] | -tayó | -tayó | kadatayó |
|---|
| 1st person plural exclusive | dakamí, sikamí [23] | -kamí | -mi | kadakamí |
|---|
| 2nd person plural | dakayó, sikayó [23] | -kayó | -yo | kadakayó |
|---|
| 3rd person plural | isúda | -da | -da | kadakuáda |
|---|
Like nouns, Tagalog personal pronouns are categorized by case. As above, the indirect forms also function as the genitive.
Tagalog Personal Pronouns| | Direct (ang) | Indirect (ng) | Oblique (sa) |
|---|
| 1st person singular | akó | ko | akin |
|---|
| 1st person dual | kitá/kata [28] | nitá/nata [28] | kanitá/kanata (ata) [28] |
|---|
| 1st person plural inclusive | tayo | natin | atin |
|---|
| 1st person plural exclusive | kamí | namin | amin |
|---|
| 2nd person singular | ikáw (ka) | mo | iyó |
|---|
| 2nd person plural | kayó | ninyó | inyó |
|---|
| 3rd person singular | siyá | niyá | kaniyá |
|---|
| 3rd person plural | silá | nilá | kanilá |
|---|
Like nouns, Cebuano personal pronouns are categorized by case.
Cebuano Personal Pronouns| | Kinsa | Tag-iya (primary) | Tag-iya (modifier) | Oblique |
|---|
| 1st person singular | ako | akoa | nako | kanako |
| 2nd person singular | ikaw | imoha | nimo | kanimo |
| 3rd person singular | siya / sya | iyaha /iya | niya | kaniya |
| 1st person plural inclusive | kita | atoa / ato | nato | kanato |
| 1st person plural exclusive | kami | amoa / amo | namo | kanamo |
| 2nd person plural | kamo | inyoha | ninyo | kaninyo |
| 3rd person plural | sila | ilaha | nila | kanila |
*The two sets of tag-iya case function similarly except that the primary tag-iya would need the unifying linker nga and the modifier tag-iya cannot be used as complementary adjective.
**The final syllable of a primary tag-iya pronoun is mostly dropped.
When the pronoun is not the first word of the sentence, the short form is more commonly used than the full form.
Cebuano Enclitic Personal Pronouns| | Kinsa | Tag-iya (primary) | Tag-iya (modifier) | Oblique |
|---|
| 1st person singular | ko | ako | ko | nako |
| 2nd person singular | ka | imo | mo | nimo |
| 3rd person singular | siya | iya | niya | niya |
| 1st person plural inclusive | ta | ato | ta | nato |
| 1st person plural exclusive | mi | amo | namo | namo |
| 2nd person plural | mo | inyo | ninyo | ninyo |
| 3rd person plural | sila | ila | nila | nila |
*When the object is a second person pronoun, use ta instead of ko.
The informal pronouns aku, kamu, engkau, ia, kami, and kita are indigenous to Malay. However, there are more personal pronouns according to formality, see more at Malay grammar.
Malay personal pronouns| Person | Malay | English |
|---|
| First person | saya (standard, polite),
aku (informal, familiar) | I, me |
| kami | we, us: they and me, s/he and me |
| kita | we, us: you and me, you and us |
| Second person | anda (polite, formal),
engkau, kamu (familiar, informal) | you, thou, thee |
anda sekalian (formal),
kalian (informal) | you, y'all |
| Third person | ia ~ dia,
dia orang | he, she, him, her |
ia ~ dia,
mereka, dia orang | they, them |
- Possessive pronouns
Aku, kamu, engkau, and ia have short possessive enclitic forms. All others retain their full forms like other nouns, as does emphatic dia: meja saya, meja kita, meja anda, meja dia "my table, our table, your table, his/her table".
Possessed forms of meja "table"| Pronoun | Enclitic | Possessed form |
|---|
| aku | -ku | mejaku (my table) |
| kamu | -mu | mejamu (your table) |
| engkau | -kau | mejakau (your table) |
| ia | -nya | mejanya (his, her, their table) |
Javanese Personal Pronouns| Person | Javanese | English |
|---|
| First person | aku (standard, informal),
kula (formal),
dalem/kawula (more formal/ humble) | I, me |
dhèwè/awaké dhèwè (informal),
kita (formal) | we, us |
| Second person | kowé (informal),
sampéyan (formal),
panjenengan (more formal) | you |
kowé kabèh (informal),
sampéyan sedaya (formal),
panjenengan sedanten (more formal) | you, you all |
| Third person | dhèwèké/wongé (informal), piyantuné, panjenengané (formal),
panjenenganipun (more formal) | he, she, him, her |
dhèwèké kabèh (informal, but rarely), wong-wong iku (informal)
panjenenganipun sedanten, tiyang-tiyang/piyantun-piyantun puniki (more formal) | they, them |
Javanese lacks some personal pronouns. For the first person plural, Javanese use awaké dhèwè, literally meaning "the body itself" (cf. Malay : badannya sendiri) or just dhèwè, that originally means "itself" or "alone". For the third person singular, Javanese uses dhèwèké that means "itself" (cf. Malay: dirinya), from dhèwè (self, alone) + -k- (archaic glottal stop)+ -(n)é (3rd person possessive enclitic), or wongé' (cf. Malay: orangnya) that means "the person", from wong (person)+ -(n)é (3rd person possessive enclitic, that is also used for demonstrative). The rest of plural pronouns uses words kabèh/sedaya/sedanten, all of them meaning "all" after the singular form.
- Possessive pronouns
Aku, kowé, and dhèwèké have short possessive enclitic forms. All others retain their full forms like other nouns: griyané kula, omahé awaké dhèwè, dalemipun panjenengan "my house (formal), our house (informal), your house (more formal)".
Possessed forms of omah/ griya/ dalem "house"| Pronoun | Enclitic | Possessed form |
|---|
| aku | -ku/-(n)é kula/-ipun dalem | omahku/griyané kula/dalemipun dalem (my house) |
| kowe | -mu/-(n)é sampeyan/-ipun panjenengan | omahmu/griyané sampeyan/dalemipun panjenengan (your house) |
| dhèwèké | -(n)é/-ipun | omahé/griyané/dalemipun (his, her, their house) |
Tongan
The Tongan cardinal pronouns are the main personal pronouns which in Tongan can either be preposed (before the verb) or postposed (after the verb). The first are the normal pronouns, the latter the stressed pronouns, which are also used as reflexive pronouns.
Tongan Personal Pronouns | Position | Singular | Dual | Plural |
|---|
| 1st person | exclusive
(I, we, us) | preposed | u, ou, ku | ma | mau |
|---|
| postposed | au | kimaua | kimautolu |
inclusive
(one, we, us) | preposed | te | ta | tau |
|---|
| postposed | kita | kitaua | kitautolu |
| 2nd person | preposed | ke | mo | mou |
|---|
| postposed | koe | kimoua | kimoutolu |
| 3rd person | preposed | ne | na | nau |
|---|
| postposed | ia | kinaua | kinautolu |
Samoan
Like many Austronesian languages, Samoan has separate words for inclusive and exclusive we, and distinguishes singular, dual, and plural. The root for the inclusive pronoun may occur in the singular, in which case it indicates emotional involvement on the part of the speaker.
Samoan Personal Pronouns | singular | dual | plural |
|---|
| First person exclusive | a‘u, ‘ou | mā‘ua, mā | mātou |
|---|
| First person inclusive | tā | tā‘ua, tā | tātou |
|---|
| Second person | ‘oe, ‘e | ‘oulua | ‘outou, tou |
|---|
| Third person | ia / na | lā‘ua | lātou |
|---|
In formal speech, fuller forms of the roots mā-, tā-, and lā- are ‘imā-, ‘itā-, and ‘ilā-.
Hawaiian
Hawaiian Personal Pronouns | Singular (1) | Dual (2) | Plural (3+) |
|---|
| 1st | 2nd | 3rd | 1st incl. | 1st excl. | 2nd | 3rd | 1st incl. | 1st excl. | 2nd | 3rd |
|---|
| Case | Nominative | au | ʻoe | ia | kāua | māua | ʻolua | lāua | kākou | mākou | ʻoukou | lākou |
|---|
| Genitive | a-class | kaʻu | kāu | kāna | kā kāua | kā māua | kā ʻolua | kā lāua | kā kākou | kā mākou | kā ʻoukou | kā lākou |
|---|
| o-class | koʻu | kou | kōna | kō kāua | kō māua | kō ʻolua | kō lāua | kō kākou | kō mākou | kō ʻoukou | kō lākou |
|---|
| affectionate | kuʻu | kō | Only used in 1st and 2nd person singular. |
|---|
Accusative,
Dative | iaʻu | iā ʻoe | iā ia | iā kāua | iā māua | iā ʻolua | iā lāua | iā kākou | iā mākou | iā ʻoukou | iā lākou |
|---|
The a-class possessive pronouns refer to alienable possession, as with boats, children, clothing, and spouses. The o-class possessive pronouns refer to inalienable (incapable of being begun or ended) possession, as with parents and body parts. [29]
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