Extinct language

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Eteocypriot writing, Amathous, Cyprus, 500-300 BC, Ashmolean Museum Eteocypriot writing.jpg
Eteocypriot writing, Amathous, Cyprus, 500–300 BC, Ashmolean Museum

An extinct language or dead language is a language with no living native speakers [1] [2] A dormant language is a dead language that still serves as a symbol of ethnic identity to an ethnic group; these languages are often undergoing a process of revitalisation. [3] Languages that have first-language speakers are known as modern or living languages to contrast them with dead languages, especially in educational contexts.

Contents

Languages have typically become extinct as a result of the process of cultural assimilation leading to language shift, and the gradual abandonment of a native language in favor of a foreign lingua franca . [4] [5] [6]

As of the 2000s, a total of roughly 7,000 natively spoken languages existed worldwide. Most of these are minor languages in danger of extinction; one estimate published in 2004 expected that some 90% of the currently spoken languages will have become extinct by 2050. [7]

Language death

Sisters Maxine Wildcat Barnett (1925-2021) (left) and Josephine Wildcat Bigler (1921-2016); two of the last elderly speakers of Yuchi, visiting their grandmother's grave in a cemetery behind Pickett Chapel in Sapulpa, Oklahoma. According to the sisters, their grandmother had insisted that Yuchi be their native language. Yuchilanguagespeakers.jpg
Sisters Maxine Wildcat Barnett (1925–2021) (left) and Josephine Wildcat Bigler (1921–2016); two of the last elderly speakers of Yuchi, visiting their grandmother's grave in a cemetery behind Pickett Chapel in Sapulpa, Oklahoma. According to the sisters, their grandmother had insisted that Yuchi be their native language.

Normally the transition from a spoken to an extinct language occurs when a language undergoes language death by being directly replaced by a different one. For example, many Native American languages were replaced by Dutch, English, French, Portuguese, or Spanish as a result of European colonization of the Americas. [9]

After a language has ceased to be spoken as a first language, it may continue to exist as learned, second language, such as Latin. [10]

In a view that prioritizes written representation over natural language acquisition and evolution, historical languages with living descendants that have undergone significant language change may be considered "extinct", especially in cases where they did not leave a corpus of literature or liturgy that remained in widespread use (see corpus language), as is the case with Old English or Old High German relative to their contemporary descendants, English and German. [11] This is accomplished by periodizing English and German as Old; for Latin, an apt clarifying adjective is Classical, which also normally includes designation of high or formal register. [12]

Bilingual Latin-Punic inscription at the theatre in Leptis Magna in present-day Libya Inscription Theatre Leptis Magna Libya.JPG
Bilingual Latin–Punic inscription at the theatre in Leptis Magna in present-day Libya

Minor languages are endangered mostly due to economic and cultural globalization, cultural assimilation, and development. With increasing economic integration on national and regional scales, people find it easier to communicate and conduct business in the dominant lingua francas of world commerce: English, Mandarin Chinese, Spanish, and French. [13]

In their study of contact-induced language change, American linguists Sarah Grey Thomason and Terrence Kaufman (1991) stated that in situations of cultural pressure (where populations are forced to speak a dominant language), three linguistic outcomes may occur: first – and most commonly – a subordinate population may shift abruptly to the dominant language, leaving the native language to a sudden linguistic death. Second, the more gradual process of language death may occur over several generations. The third and most rare outcome is for the pressured group to maintain as much of its native language as possible, while borrowing elements of the dominant language's grammar (replacing all, or portions of, the grammar of the original language). [14] A now disappeared language may leave a substantial trace as a substrate in the language that replaces it. There have, however, also been cases where the language of higher prestige did not displace the native language but left a superstrate influence. The French language for example shows evidence both of a Celtic substrate and a Frankish superstrate.

Institutions such as the education system, as well as (often global) forms of media such as the Internet, television, and print media play a significant role in the process of language loss. [13] For example, when people migrate to a new country, their children attend school in the country, and the schools are likely to teach them in the majority language of the country rather than their parents' native language. [15] [16]

Language death can also be the explicit goal of government policy. For example, part of the "kill the Indian, save the man" policy of American Indian boarding schools and other measures was to prevent Native Americans from transmitting their native language to the next generation and to punish children who spoke the language of their culture of origin. [17] [18] [19] The French vergonha policy likewise had the aim of eradicating minority languages. [20]

Language revival

Language revival is the attempt to re-introduce an extinct language in everyday use by a new generation of native speakers. The optimistic neologism "sleeping beauty languages" has been used to express such a hope, [21] though scholars usually refer to such languages as dormant.

In practice, this has only happened on a large scale successfully once: the revival of the Hebrew language. Hebrew had survived for millennia since the Babylonian exile as a liturgical language, but not as a vernacular language. The revival of Hebrew has been largely successful due to extraordinarily favourable conditions, notably the creation of a nation state (modern Israel in 1948) in which it became the official language, as well as Eliezer Ben-Yehuda's extreme dedication to the revival of the language, by creating new words for the modern terms Hebrew lacked.

Revival attempts for minor extinct languages with no status as a liturgical language typically have more modest results. The Cornish language revival has proven at least partially successful: after a century of effort there are 3,500 claimed native speakers, enough for UNESCO to change its classification from "extinct" to "critically endangered". A Livonian language revival movement to promote the use of the Livonian language has managed to train a few hundred people to have some knowledge of it. [22]

Recently extinct languages

This is a list of languages reported as having become extinct since 2010. For a more complete list, see Lists of extinct languages.

DateLanguageLanguage familyRegion Terminal speaker Notes
by 2024 Tandia Austronesian West Papua, IndonesiaSpeakers shifted to Wandamen. [23] [24]
by 2024 Mawes Northwest Papuan? West Papua, Indonesia [24]
by 2024 Luhu Austronesian Maluku, Indonesia [24]
2 May 2023 Columbia-Moses Salishan Washington (state), United StatesPauline Stensgar [25]
5 October 2022 Mednyj Aleut Mixed Aleut–Russian Commander Islands, RussiaGennady Yakovlev [26]
16 February 2022 Yahgan Isolate Magallanes, Chile Cristina Calderón [27]
2022 AD Moghol Mongolic Herat Province [28]
by 2022 AD Lachoudisch Indo-European Schopfloch, Bavaria [29]
25 September 2021 Wukchumni dialect of Tule-Kaweah Yokuts Yokuts California, United States Marie Wilcox [30]
27 August 2021 Yuchi Isolate Tennessee (formerly), Oklahoma, United StatesMaxine Wildcat Barnett [31]
7 March 2021 Bering Aleut Eskimo-Aleut Kamchatka Krai, RussiaVera Timoshenko [32]
2 February 2021 Juma Tupian Rondônia, BrazilAruka Juma [33]
2 December 2020 Tuscarora Iroquoian North Carolina, United StatesKenneth Patterson [34]
4 April 2020 Aka-Cari Great Andamanese Andaman Islands, IndiaLicho [35]
23 March 2019 Ngandi Gunwinyguan Northern Territory, AustraliaC. W. Daniels [36] [37]
4 January 2019 Tehuelche Chonan Patagonia, ArgentinaDora Manchado [38] [39]
9 December 2016 Mandan Siouan North Dakota, United States Edwin Benson [40]
30 August 2016 Wichita Caddoan Oklahoma, United States Doris McLemore [41]
29 July 2016 Gugu Thaypan Pama-Nyungan Queensland, Australia Tommy George [42]
11 February 2016Nuchatlaht dialect of Nuu-chah-nulth Wakashan British Columbia, CanadaAlban Michael [43]
4 January 2016 Whulshootseed Salishan Washington, United StatesEllen Williams [44] [45]
4 February 2014 Klallam Salishan Washington, United States Hazel Sampson [46] [47] [notes 1]
By 2014 Demushbo Panoan Amazon Basin, Brazil
By 2014 Sarghulami Indo-European Badakhshan [48]
5 June 2013 Livonian Uralic Latvia Grizelda Kristiņa [49] [notes 2] Under a process of revival. [50]
26 March 2013 Yurok Algic California, United States Archie Thompson [51] Under a process of revival. [52]
By 2013 Sabüm Mon–Khmer Perak, Malaysia2013 extinction is based on ISO changing it from living to extinct in 2013
2 October 2012 Cromarty dialect of Scots Indo-European Northern Scotland, United KingdomBobby Hogg [53]
11 July 2012 Upper Chinook Chinookan Oregon, United StatesGladys Thompson [54]
10 March 2012 Holikachuk Na-Dene Alaska, United StatesWilson "Tiny" Deacon [55]
c. 2012 Dhungaloo Pama-Nyungan Queensland, AustraliaRoy Hatfield [56]
c. 2012 Ngasa Nilotic Tanzania Most speakers have shifted to Chaga
by 2012 Mardijker Portuguese-based Creole Jakarta, IndonesiaOma Mimi Abrahams [57]
10 April 2011 Apiaká Tupian Mato Grosso, BrazilPedrinho Kamassuri [58]
2011 Lower Arrernte Pama-Nyungan Northern Territory, Australia Brownie Doolan Perrurle [59]
by 2011 Anserma Chocoan Antioquia Department, Colombia
24 October 2010 Pazeh Austronesian Taiwan Pan Jin-yu [60]
20 August 2010 Cochin Indo-Portuguese Creole Portuguese-based Creole Southern IndiaWilliam Rozario [60]
26 January 2010 Aka-Bo Andamanese Andaman Islands, India Boa Sr. [61]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Last surviving native speaker; it is being taught as a second language on the Olympic Peninsula of Washington State.
  2. ↑ Last surviving native speaker; some children still learn it as a second language.

Related Research Articles

Ethnologue: Languages of the World is an annual reference publication in print and online that provides statistics and other information on the living languages of the world. It is the world's most comprehensive catalogue of languages. It was first issued in 1951, and is now published by SIL International, an American evangelical Christian non-profit organization.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Endangered language</span> Language that is at risk of going extinct

An endangered language or moribund language is a language that is at risk of disappearing as its speakers die out or shift to speaking other languages. Language loss occurs when the language has no more native speakers and becomes a "dead language". If no one can speak the language at all, it becomes an "extinct language". A dead language may still be studied through recordings or writings, but it is still dead or extinct unless there are fluent speakers. Although languages have always become extinct throughout human history, they are currently dying at an accelerated rate because of globalization, mass migration, cultural replacement, imperialism, neocolonialism and linguicide.

Language revitalization, also referred to as language revival or reversing language shift, is an attempt to halt or reverse the decline of a language or to revive an extinct one. Those involved can include linguists, cultural or community groups, or governments. Some argue for a distinction between language revival and language revitalization. There has only been one successful instance of a complete language revival: that of the Hebrew language.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Language death</span> Process in which a language eventually loses its last native speaker

In linguistics, language death occurs when a language loses its last native speaker. By extension, language extinction is when the language is no longer known, including by second-language speakers, when it becomes known as an extinct language. A related term is linguicide, the death of a language from natural or political causes, and, rarely, glottophagy, the absorption or replacement of a minor language by a major language.

Barzani Jewish Neo-Aramaic is a modern Jewish Aramaic language, often called Neo-Aramaic or Judeo-Aramaic. It was originally spoken in three villages near Akre in Iraqi Kurdistan. The native name of the language is Lishanid Janan, which means 'our language', and is similar to names used by other Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialects .

Judaeo-Romance languages are Jewish languages derived from Romance languages, spoken by various Jewish communities originating in regions where Romance languages predominate, and altered to such an extent to gain recognition as languages in their own right. The status of many Judaeo-Romance languages is controversial as, despite manuscripts preserving transcriptions of Romance languages using the Hebrew alphabet, there is often little-to-no evidence that these "dialects" were actually spoken by Jews living in the various European nations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Yokuts language</span> Endangered language of California, US

Yokuts, formerly known as Mariposa, is an endangered language spoken in the interior of Northern and Central California in and around the San Joaquin Valley by the Yokuts people. The speakers of Yokuts were severely affected by disease, missionaries, and the Gold Rush. While descendants of Yokuts speakers currently number in the thousands, all constituent dialects apart from Valley Yokuts are now extinct.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wintuan languages</span> Language family of Northern California, US

Wintuan is a family of languages spoken in the Sacramento Valley of central Northern California.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Serrano language</span> Uto-Aztecan language of southern California

Serrano is a language in the Serran branch of the Uto-Aztecan family spoken by the Serrano people of Southern California. The language is closely related to Tongva, Tataviam, Kitanemuk and Vanyume, which may be a dialect of Serrano. Serrano has free word order with the only rule being that verbs usually come last.

Dhuwal is one of the Yolŋu languages spoken by Aboriginal Australians in the Northern Territory, Australia. Although all Yolŋu languages are mutually intelligible to some extent, Dhuwal represents a distinct dialect continuum of eight separate varieties. In 2019, Djambarrpuyŋu became the first Indigenous language to be spoken in an Australian parliament, when Yolŋu man and member of the Northern Territory Legislative Assembly Yingiya Guyula gave a speech in his native tongue.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Languages of Nicaragua</span>

The official language of Nicaragua is Spanish; however, Nicaraguans on the Caribbean coast speak indigenous languages and also English. The communities located on the Caribbean coast also have access to education in their native languages. Additionally, Nicaragua has four extinct indigenous languages.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Arandic languages</span>

Arandic is a family of Australian Aboriginal languages consisting of several languages or dialect clusters, including the Arrernte group, Lower Arrernte, Pertame language and Kaytetye.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wukchumni dialect</span> Yokuts language

Wukchumni or Wikchamni is an extinct dialect of Tule-Kaweah Yokuts that was historically spoken by the Wukchumni people of the east fork of the Kaweah River of California.

Within the linguistic study of endangered languages, sociolinguists distinguish between different speaker types based on the type of competence they have acquired of the endangered language. Often when a community is gradually shifting away from an endangered language to a majority language, not all speakers acquire full linguistic competence; instead, speakers have varying degrees and types of competence depending on their exposure to the minority language in their upbringing. The relevance of speaker types in cases of language shift was first noted by Nancy Dorian, who coined the term semi-speaker to refer to those speakers of Sutherland Gaelic who were predominantly English-speaking and whose Gaelic competence was limited and showed considerable influence from English. Later studies added additional speaker types such as rememberers, and passive speakers. In the context of language revitalization, new speakers who have learned the endangered language as a second language are sometimes distinguished.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Livonian language revival</span> Movement for reviving the Livonian language spoken in Latvia

The Livonian language, spoken for centuries in Latvia, gradually declined until the death of its last fluent native speaker, Grizelda Kristiņa, on 2 June 2013. Nevertheless, today there are several ethnic Livonians that are striving for the revival of the language, with about 210 people with some knowledge of it in the world.

References

  1. ↑ Matthews, P. H. (1 January 2007), "dead language", The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Linguistics, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acref/9780199202720.001.0001, ISBN   978-0-19-920272-0 , retrieved 14 November 2021
  2. ↑ Lenore A. Grenoble, Lindsay J. Whaley, Saving Languages: An Introduction to Language Revitalization, Cambridge University Press (2006) p.18
  3. ↑ "What is the difference between a dormant language and an extinct language?". www.ethnologue.com. 15 February 2013. Archived from the original on 2 January 2022. Retrieved 29 July 2023.
  4. ↑ Byram, Michael; Hu, Adelheid (26 June 2013). Routledge Encyclopedia of Language Teaching and Learning. Routledge. ISBN   978-1136235535.
  5. ↑ Walt, Christa Van der (1 May 2007). Living Through Languages: An African Tribute to René Dirven. AFRICAN SUN MeDIA. ISBN   9781920109707.
  6. ↑ Hall, Christopher J.; Smith, Patrick H.; Wicaksono, Rachel (11 May 2015). Mapping Applied Linguistics: A Guide for Students and Practitioners. Routledge. ISBN   978-1136836237.
  7. ↑ "Study by language researcher, David Graddol". NBC News. 26 February 2004. Retrieved 22 March 2012.Ian on Friday, January 16, 2009 61 comments (16 January 2009). "Research by Southwest University for Nationalities College of Liberal Arts". Chinasmack.com. Retrieved 22 March 2012.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link). Ethnologue records 7,358 living languages known, "Ethnologue". Ethnologue. Archived from the original on 5 October 2001. Retrieved 22 March 2012. but on 2015-05-20, Ethnologue reported only 7,102 known living languages; and on 2015-02-23, Ethnologue already reported only 7,097 known living languages.
  8. ↑ "One of the Last Remaining Native Yuchi Speakers Passes". www.culturalsurvival.org. June 2016. Retrieved 13 December 2020.
  9. ↑ "How Colonialism Causes Language Endangerment". www.goethe.de. Retrieved 23 October 2024.
  10. ↑ Matthews, P. H. (1 January 2007), "dead language", The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Linguistics, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acref/9780199202720.001.0001, ISBN   978-0-19-920272-0 , retrieved 14 November 2021
  11. ↑ "Library : Liturgical Languages". www.catholicculture.org. Retrieved 23 October 2024.
  12. ↑ Sichel, Barb (12 November 2019). "Understanding Extinct Languages: When and Why They Die Off - ILS Translations" . Retrieved 23 October 2024.
  13. 1 2 Malone, Elizabeth (28 July 2008). "Language and Linguistics: Endangered Language". National Science Foundation. Archived from the original on 9 March 2010. Retrieved 23 October 2009.
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  16. ↑ Atifnigar, Hamza (July–August 2021). "Exploring the Causes of Language Death: A Review Paper" (PDF). International Journal of Arts and Social Science.
  17. ↑ "The History of Native American Boarding Schools is Even More Complicated than a New Report Reveals". 17 May 2022.
  18. ↑ Levitt, Zach; Parshina-Kottas, Yuliya; Romero, Simon; Wallace, Tim (30 August 2023). "'War Against the Children'". The New York Times.
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  20. ↑ "La Vergonha and the Future of Occitan Language | Performing Trobar".
  21. ↑ See pp. 57 & 60 in Ghil'ad Zuckermann's A New Vision for "Israeli Hebrew": Theoretical and Practical Implications of Analysing Israel's Main Language as a Semi-Engineered Semito-European Hybrid Language, Journal of Modern Jewish Studies 5: 57–71 (2006). Dr Anna Goldsworthy on the Barngarla language reclamation, The Monthly , September 2014
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  23. ↑ "Tandia" (in Indonesian). Ministry of Education and Culture . Retrieved 20 October 2024.
  24. 1 2 3 "11 Indigenous Languages Declared Extinct: Education Ministry". Jakarta Globe. 8 March 2024. Retrieved 10 September 2024.
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  26. ↑ "Last Native Speaker Of Aleut Language In Russia Dies". RadioFreeEurope. 5 October 2022.
  27. ↑ S.A.P, El Mercurio (16 February 2022). "Fallece a los 93 años Cristina Calderón, la última hablante del idioma Yagán | Emol.com". Emol (in Spanish). Retrieved 16 February 2022.
  28. ↑ Mogholi at Ethnologue (25th ed., 2022) Closed Access logo transparent.svg
  29. ↑ Eylon, Lili (25 June 2022). "The Judenrein town that spoke Hebrew". Times Of Israel. Retrieved 4 November 2024. Indeed, by 1994, reportedly only 12 people used some 200 Lachoudish words. The dialect Lachoudish had its day; it is now extinct
  30. ↑ Seelye, Katharine Q. (6 October 2021). "Marie Wilcox, Who Saved Her Native Language From Extinction, Dies at 87". The New York Times. ISSN   0362-4331 . Retrieved 12 February 2022.
  31. ↑ "'Race against time': Pandemic propels fight to save Native American languages". POLITICO. 13 April 2021. Retrieved 13 April 2021.
  32. ↑ "Last Native Speaker Of Rare Dialect Dies In Russia". Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. 9 March 2021. Retrieved 18 March 2021.
  33. ↑ International, Survival (10 March 2021). "Aruká Juma, Last Man of His Tribe, Is Dead". NY Times. Retrieved 10 March 2021.
  34. ↑ Anderson, Dale (11 December 2020). "Chief Kenneth Patterson, 93, leader in the Tuscarora Nation". The Buffalo News. Retrieved 19 March 2021.
  35. ↑ International, Survival (1 June 2020). "The last speaker of the Sare language has died". Medium. Retrieved 28 June 2020.
  36. ↑ "Preserving Indigenous languages". Monash Life. Monash University. 27 October 2019. Retrieved 12 August 2020.
  37. ↑ "Cherry Wulumirr Daniels laid to rest". Yugul Mangi Development Aboriginal Corporation. 24 April 2019. Retrieved 12 August 2020.
  38. ↑ Daigneault, Anna (6 November 2019). "Museums of the mind: Why we should preserve endangered languages". Global Voices. Retrieved 23 November 2019.
  39. ↑ Domingo, Javier (30 January 2019). "La imborrable obra de Dora Manchado: ¿la última guardiana de la lengua tehuelche?". Infobae (in Spanish). Retrieved 23 November 2019.
  40. ↑ Joe Skurzewski (10 December 2016). "Edwin Benson, last known fluent speaker of Mandan, passes away at 85". KFYR-TV. Archived from the original on 23 September 2023.
  41. ↑ Daffron, Brian (6 October 2016). "Doris McLemore, Last Fluent Wichita Speaker, Walks On". Indian Country Media Network. Archived from the original on 4 August 2017. Retrieved 24 May 2017.
  42. ↑ "A "Legend", Indigenous Australian Leader, Knowledge Holder Tommy George Passes On". Snowchange Cooperative. 29 July 2016. Retrieved 24 May 2017.
  43. ↑ Jack Knox (19 March 2016). "Jack Knox — A silenced tongue: the last Nuchatlaht speaker dies". Times Colonist. Archived from the original on 5 August 2021.
  44. ↑ Lacitis, Erik (8 February 2005). "Last few Whulshootseed speakers spread the word". Seattle Times. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 15 September 2012.
  45. ↑ Sweet Dorman, Lois (21 June 2005). "Lost in translation: a connection to the sacred". Seattle Times. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 15 September 2012.
  46. ↑ Kaminsky, Jonathan (7 February 2014). "Last native speaker of Klallam language dies in Washington state". Reuters. Archived from the original on 19 July 2023.
  47. ↑ "Last native Klallam speaker dies in Port Angeles". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 8 February 2014.
  48. ↑ Kakar, Hasan Kawun (2014). Government and Society in Afghanistan: The Reign of Amir 'Abd al-Rahman Khan (5 ed.). University of Texas Press. ISBN   9780292729001.
  49. ↑ Charter, David. "Death of a language: last ever speaker of Livonian passes away aged 103". The Times.
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  51. ↑ Romney, Lee. (2013, February 6). Revival of nearly extinct Yurok language is a success story . The Los Angeles Times. Retrieved February 7, 2013
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  53. ↑ Obituary: Robert (Bobby) Hogg, engineer and last speaker of the Cromarty dialect The Scotsman. 15 October 2012.
  54. ↑ Foden-Vencil, Kristian. "Last Fluent Speaker Of Oregon Tribal Language 'Kiksht' Dies". Oregon Public Broadcasting. Archived from the original on 10 October 2019. Retrieved 23 May 2017.
  55. ↑ "Alaska Native Language Loses Last Fluent Speaker - Indian Country Media Network". indiancountrymedianetwork.com. Archived from the original on 8 June 2017. Retrieved 23 May 2017.
  56. ↑ "ISO 639-3 Registration Authority Request for New Language Code Element in ISO 639-3" (PDF). ISO 639-3. 23 January 2012. Retrieved 29 October 2023.
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  60. 1 2 "An Indian language recently went extinct. Why were we not told about it?". write2kill.in - Select writings of Subir Ghosh. Archived from the original on 18 February 2013.
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Bibliography

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