Yurok (also Chillula, Mita, Pekwan, Rikwa, Sugon, Weitspek, Weitspekan) is an Algic language.[2] It is the traditional language of the Yurok people of Del Norte County and Humboldt County on the far north coast of California, most of whom now speak English. The last known native speaker, Archie Thompson, died in 2013.[1] As of 2022,[3] Yurok language classes were taught to high school students, and other revitalization efforts were expected to increase the population of speakers.[4]
The standard reference on the Yurok language grammar is by R. H. Robins (1958).[5]
Name
Concerning the etymology of Yurok (a.k.a.Weitspekan), this below is from Campbell (1997):
Yurok is from Karukyúruk meaning literally 'downriver'. The Yurok traditional name for themselves is Puliklah (Hinton 1994:157), from pulik 'downstream' + -la 'people of', thus equivalent in meaning to the Karuk name by which they came to be known in English (Victor Golla, personal communication).(Campbell 1997:401, notes #131 & 132)
The program to revive Yurok has been lauded as the most successful language revitalization program in California.[7] As of 2014, there are six schools in Northern California that teach Yurok - four high schools and two elementary schools. Rick Jordan, principal of Eureka High School, one of the schools with a Yurok Language Program, remarks on the impact that schools can have on the vitality of a language, "A hundred years ago, it was our organizations that were beating the language out of folks, and now we're trying to re-instill it – a little piece of something that is much larger than us".[8]
The last known native, active speaker of Yurok, Archie Thompson, died March 26, 2013. "He was also the last of about 20 elders who helped revitalize the language over the last few decades, after academics in the 1990s predicted it would be extinct by 2010. He made recordings of the language that were archived by UC Berkeley linguists and the tribe, spent hours helping to teach Yurok in community and school classrooms, and welcomed apprentice speakers to probe his knowledge."[1]
Linguists at UC Berkeley began the Yurok Language Project in 2001. Professor Andrew Garrett and Dr. Juliette Blevins collaborated with tribal elders on a Yurok dictionary that has been hailed as a national model.[7] The Yurok Language Project has gone much more in depth than just a printed lexicon, however. The dictionary is available online and fully searchable. It is also possible to search an audio dictionary – a repository of audio clips of words and short phrases. For a more in-depth study, there is a database of compiled texts where words and phrases can be viewed as part of a larger context.[9]
As of February 2013, there are over 300 basic Yurok speakers, 60 with intermediate skills, 37 who are advanced, and 17 who are considered conversationally fluent.[7] As of 2014, nine people are certified to teach Yurok in schools. Since Yurok, like many other Native American languages, uses a master-apprentice system to train up speakers in the language, having even nine certified teachers would not be possible without a piece of legislation passed in 2009 in the state of California that allows indigenous tribes the power to appoint their own language teachers.[8]
Yurok has an anticipatory vowel harmony system where underlying non-high vowels /a/, /e/, and /ɔ/ are realized as [ɚ] if they precede an /ɚ/.[13]
Yurok has front-, central-, and back-closing diphthongs. The second element of the diphthongs is considered a consonant or semivowel. This is because Yurok diphthongs are falling diphthongs and behave similarly to nasal and approximates following a vowel and preceding a pause or voiceless non-glottalized consonant.[5]
All Yurok syllables begin with a consonant and contain at least one vowel. Here are some examples of the different kinds of syllable structure:[5]
CV
ki
will, can
CV:
hoː
to go
CVC
kuʂ
when? how?
CV:C
kiːɬ
redwood tree
CVCC
mekʷt͜ʃ
snail
CVCCC
taʔanojʔɬ
it is hot (weather)
CV:CC
hoːkʷʼt͜ʃʼ
he gambles
CV:CCC
noːjt͜ʃʼkʷ
he eats as a guest
CCV
t͜ʃpi
only
CCV:
ploːlikin
wide
CCVC
ɬkeɬ
earth
CCV:C
t͜ʃpaːk
late
CCVCC
plaʔʂ
stick for measuring net meshes
CCV:CC
ɬkoːʔm
they take
CCVC
ɬkjoɻkʷekʼ
I look
CCVCCC
t͜ʃkʷaʔɻkʼ
near
CV:VC
ʂoːol
yew
CCV:V
knuːu
hawk
V:V can only be /oːo/ or /uːu/ and is signaled by a change in pitch between the vowels.
Orthography
The Unifon alphabet for Yurok
As of 2020, Yurok is written in the New Yurok Alphabet, using Latin characters. Previously, Yurok was written in the Yurok Unifon; some books cited in the Yurok Language Project contain Yurok written in the Unifon script, though due to practicality in writing, typing, and reading, the Latin characters are now preferred. Currently, there is a spelling reform occurring to streamline the spelling of words; thus, some letters may differ between spellings. Currently, this is the alphabet as taught at various schools.[citation needed][further explanation needed]
Some books have been written partially in Yurok. One such example is the graphic novel Soldiers Unknown,[14] written by Chag Lowry.[15] The Yurok text in Soldiers Unknown was translated by Yurok language teacher James Gensaw, and the graphic novel was illustrated by Rahsan Ekedal.
Morphology
Yurok morphological processes include prefixation, infixation, inflection, vowel harmony, ablaut, consonantal alternation,[clarification needed] and reduplication.[5]
Prefixation and infixation occur in nominals and verbals, and occasionally in other classes, although infixation occurs most frequently in verbals.
Vowel harmony occurs for prefixes, infixes, and inflections, depending on the vocalic and consonantal structure of the word stem. Internal vocalic alternation involves three alternating pairs: /e/~/i/, /e/~/iʔi/, /e/~/u/.
Reduplication occurs mostly on verb stems but occasionally for nouns and can connote repetition, plurality, etc. Reduplication occurs on the first syllable, and sometimes a part of the second syllable:
Stem
Reduplicated form
Verbs
kelomen
to turn (trans.)
kekelomen
to turn several things
ketʼul
there is a lake
ketʼketʼul
there is a series of lakes
kneweʔlon
to be long
kokoneweʔlon
to be long (of things)
ɬkɻʔmɻkɬkin
to tie a knot.
ɬkɻʔmɬkɻʔmɻkɻɬkin
to tie up in knots
ʂjaːɬk
to kick
ʂjaʔʂjaːɬk
to kick repeatedly
tekʷʂ
to cut
tekʷtekʷʂ
to cut up
tikʷohʂ
to break (trans.)
tikʷtikʷohʂ
to break in pieces
Nouns
mɻkʷɻɬ
peak
mɻkʷɻmɻkʷɻɬ
series of peaks
ʂlekʷoh
shirt
ʂlekʷʂlekʷ
clothes
Classifications
Numerals and adjectives can be classified according to the noun grammatically associated with them.[16]
Numerals
Common root frame: /n - hks-/
Human beings
/nahkseyl/
Animals and birds
/nrhksrʔrʔy/
Round things
/nrhksrʔrʔy/
Tools
/nahksoh/
Plants other than trees
/nahksek'woʔn/
Trees and sticks
/nahkseʔr/
Body parts and clothes
/nahkseʔn/
Long things
/nahksek'/
Flat things
/nahksok's/
Houses
/nahkseʔli/
Boats
/nahksey/
Days
/nahksemoyt/
Arm's lengths (depth measurements)
/nahksemrys/
Finger joint lengths (length measurement of dentalium shells)
/nahksepir/
Times
/nahksemi/
Adjectives
(to be) red
(to be) big
Human beings
/prkaryrʔry(-)/
/peloy-/
Animals and birds
/prkryrʔry(-)/
/plrʔry-/
Round things
/prkryrh/
/ploh/, /plohkeloy-/
Tools
/pekoyoh/
/peloy-/
Plants other than trees
/pekoyoh/
/ploh/, /plohkeloy-/
Trees and sticks
/pekoyeʔr/
/peloy-/, /plep-/
Body parts and clothes
/pekoyoh/
/plep-/, /plohkeloy-/
Long things
/pekoyoh/
/plep-/
Flat things
/pekoyoks-/
/ploks-/
Houses
/pekoyoh/
/pleʔloy-/
Boats
/pekoyoh/
/pleyteloy-/
Water
/pekoyop-/
---
Tense and aspect
As in many indigenous languages of the Americas, Yurok verbs do not code tense through inflection. The time when an action takes place is inferred through both linguistic and nonlinguistic context.
On the other hand, aspect is prevalent in Yurok verbs, being indicated by preverbal particles. These occur either directly or indirectly before a verb. These can combine with verbs and other particles to indicate time and many other aspects.
Some preverbal particles include: ho (completed action in the past); kic (past but with ongoing effects); wo (past after a negative, or in "unreal conditions"); ?ap (past with the implication of starting some action).[17]
Basic syntax
The most common form of sentence structure consists of a Nominal + Verbal. Indeed, most other, seemingly more complex sentence structures can be viewed as expanding on this fundamental type.[18]
nek
I
helomey
be dancing
-ek
-1sg
nek helomey -ek
I {be dancing} -1sg
"I am dancing."
pu:k
deer
roʔop'
run
pu:k roʔop'
deer run
"The deer is running."
Sentences can also be equational, consisting of two nominals or nominal groups:
wok
3SG.PRO
ne-
SG.POSS-
let
sister
wok ne- let
3SG.PRO SG.POSS- sister
"That is my sister."
woʔot
3SG.PRO
ku
ART
tmi:gomin
hunter
woʔot ku tmi:gomin
3SG.PRO ART hunter
"He is the hunter."
Sentences can also be composed of one or more verbals without nominals as explicit arguments.
tmo:l
to shoot
-ok'
-1SG.INFL
tmo:l -ok'
{to shoot} -1SG.INFL
"I am shooting."
hoʔop'
build a fire
-es
-2SG.IMP.INFL
hoʔop' -es
{build a fire} -2SG.IMP.INFL
"Build a fire!"
The same is true for nominals and nominal groups, which can stand alone as complete sentences, following a similar pattern to the equational sentences already mentioned.
kwesi
ADV
twegoh
raccoon
kwesi twegoh
ADV raccoon
"And it was the raccoon."
Complex sentences are formed along similar principles to these, but with expanded verbals or nominals, or verbals and/or nominals connected by coordinators.
Word order is sometimes used to distinguish between the categories of subject and object.
ku
the
pegək
man
noʔp'eʔn
to chase
mewiɬ
elk
ku pegək noʔp'eʔn mewiɬ
the man {to chase} elk
"The man chased the elk."
However, if the morphological inflections are sufficiently unambiguous, it is not necessary to maintain a strict word order.
nekac
1SG.OBJ
new
to see
-ohpeʔn
-3SG.INFL
ku
ART
wencokws
woman
nekac new -ohpeʔn ku wencokws
1SG.OBJ {to see} -3SG.INFL ART woman
"The woman saw me."
In the sentences composed of a subject and a verb, the two are often interchangeable.
Blevins, Juliette (2003). "The phonology of Yurok glottalized sonorants: Segmental fission under syllabification". International Journal of American Linguistics. 69 (4): 371–396. CiteSeerX10.1.1.494.4389. doi:10.1086/382738. S2CID14886779.
Campbell, Lyle (1997). American Indian languages: The historical linguistics of Native America. New York: Oxford University Press.
Goddard, Ives (1975). "Algonquian, Wiyot, and Yurok: Proving a distant genetic relationship". In Kinkade, M. D.; Hale, K. L.; Werner, O. (eds.). Linguistics and anthropology in honor of C. F. Voegelin. Lisse: Peter de Ridder Press. pp.249–262.
Goddard, Ives (1979). "Comparative Algonquian". In Campbell, L.; Mithun, M. (eds.). The languages of native America: Historical and comparative assessment. Austin: University of Texas Press. pp.70–132.
Goddard, Ives (1990). "Algonquian linguistic change and reconstruction". In Baldi, P. (ed.). Linguistic change and reconstruction methodology. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. pp.99–114.
Golla, Victor (2011). California Indian Languages. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN978-0-520-26667-4.
Haas, Mary R. (1958). "Algonkian-Ritwan: The end of a controversy". International Journal of American Linguistics. 24 (3): 159–173. doi:10.1086/464453.
Hinton, Leanne (1994). Flutes of fire: Essays on Californian Indian languages. Berkeley: Heyday Books.
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