Pakawan | |
---|---|
Geographic distribution | Rio Grande Valley |
Linguistic classification | Hokan ?
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Subdivisions |
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Language codes | |
Glottolog | None |
The Pakawan languages were a small language family spoken in what is today northern Mexico and southern Texas. Some Pakawan languages are today sleeping. [1] While others are engage in revitalizations and thus awakening.
Five clear Pakawan languages are attested: Coahuilteco, Cotoname, Comecrudo, Garza and Mamulique. The first three were first proposed to be related by John Wesley Powell in 1891, in a grouping then called Coahuiltecan. Goddard (1979) groups the latter three in a Comecrudan family while considering the others language isolates. The current composition and the present name "Pakawan" are due to Manaster Ramer (1996).
The term Coahuiltecan languages today refers to a slightly expanded and less securely established grouping. Most Pakawan languages have at times been included also in the much larger and highly hypothetical Hokan "stock". [2]
The following word comparisons are given by Manaster Ramer (1996):
Core Pakawan | Peripheral Pakawan | tentative reconstruction [2] | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Coahuilteco [3] | Comecrudo [3] | Cotoname [3] | Karankawa [3] | Tónkawa [4] | |
axtē 'two' | ale-kueten 'two' | haíkia 'two' | #al-, #axte 'two' | ||
'' | #ali 'ear' | ||||
uxualʼ 'heaven' | apel 'sky, heaven, clouds' | #apel' 'sky' | |||
apam 'water' | áx̣ 'water' | klai, komkom 'water' | #axə 'juice, water' | ||
tciene 'salt' | dá-än | dem, ketac | #dem 'salt' | ||
xāi 'to be extinguished, to come to an end' | kai 'to eat' | aknámas 'to eat' | #kai 'to eat up, consume' | ||
axām 'not' | kam 'no' | kóṃ 'not' | #kam 'no(t)' | ||
hām 'to eat' | kam 'to eat' | hahame, xaxame 'to eat; food' | #kam 'to eat, drink' | ||
'' | #kamkam 'body of water' | ||||
xasal 'heart' | kayasel 'heart' | láhama 'heart' | #kayasel 'heart' | ||
pe=kĕwek 'low (of water)' | xuăxe 'low (of water)' | #k(a)waka 'low (of water)' | |||
kemen 'vein' | kemma 'bow' | #keme(n) 'sinew, vein' | |||
pa=kna(x) 'high, big' | kenex 'good' | #kenex 'good, big' | |||
'' | ō' 'sun' | klos, dóowal 'sun' | #ketekawi 'sun, star' | ||
talōm 'fire' | klewem, klewen, len | mánĕx 'fire' | kwátci, kwoilesem 'fire' | #klewem 'fire' | |
'' | kĕnám | kanín | #knem 'breast' | ||
kuas | kial | sä'x | #kual 'blood' | ||
kuan 'to go' | kio; kie 'to go'; 'to come' | awóyo! 'go over there!' | #kuV- 'to go, come' | ||
k’āu 'husband' | gnax, na 'man' | xuaináxe 'man' | #kwainaxə 'man' | ||
'' | kuak 'reed, cane; arrow' | ka-u, kau 'reed; arrow' | #kwak 'reed' | ||
pe=kla 'to suck' | huäxle 'to suck' | #kwa(x/k?)la 'to suck' | |||
kʼāu 'to marry' | kuau, kwai 'married' | #k'aw 'to marry' | |||
'' | wax 'belly' | kox 'belly' | #k'wax 'belly' | ||
tšum 'night, evening' | lesum, lesom 'evening' | #lesum 'evening' | |||
'' | #lel 'buttock, leg' | ||||
'' | katówan | #lot 'arm' | |||
'' | #makə 'to give' | ||||
masõ 'to give up, abandon, desert, leave' | mel, pa=mesai 'to fall' | #maɬ- 'to fall' | |||
māux 'hand' | mapi 'hand' | miapa 'wing' | #mapi 'hand' | ||
pa=msol, pa=msul 'red' | msae 'red' | #msa'ol 'red' | |||
el-pau 'to kneel down, sink or sit down' | pawe 'to sit' | #pawə 'to sit' | |||
pilʼ 'one' | pe-kueten 'one' | #pil' 'one' | |||
ānua 'moon' | kan 'moon' | #q'an 'moon' | |||
saayēx 'to be wanting' | #sayex 'to want' | ||||
sel 'straw' | suau 'grass, tobacco; to smoke' | #sel 'grass' | |||
pa=kahuai, -kawai 'to write, paint; paper' | thawe 'painted (on body, face)' | #tkawai 'paint' | |||
tʼāhaka, tʼāxakan 'what' | tete 'how, what, why' | *tit 'what' | #t'ete- 'what' | ||
tʼil 'day' | al 'sun' | o 'sun' | #t'al 'sun' | ||
xop 'far, distant' | huanpa, xuanpa 'far' | #xwanpa 'far' | |||
'' | yá-ĕx | #ya'ex 'nose' | |||
yēwal 'to bewitch' | yamel, yamis 'devil' | #yameɬ 'evil spirit' | |||
na- 'my, me' | na 'I' | na 'I' | |||
mai- '2PS subject prefix' | emnã 'you (sg.)' | *men 'you (sg.)' | |||
pamawau | |||||
la-ak 'goose' | krak 'goose' | ||||
kol 'crane' | karakor 'crane' | ||||
ketuau 'dog' | kowá-u 'dog' | ||||
kiextuén 'rabbit' | kiáx̣nem 'rabbit' | ||||
pa=kwessom 'orphan' | kuwosam 'small, little; boy, girl' | ||||
malāux 'male sexual organs' | melkuai 'female sexual organs' | ||||
xūm 'to die' | kamau 'to kill' | wátxuka 'to kill' | |||
tzin 'I' | yen 'I' | ||||
tzōtz 'chest' | yeso knem 'to nurse' | ||||
*tšei 'to hear' | ye 'to hear' | ||||
tilʼ 'posterior, anus' | alel; (al)el 'leg'; 'buttocks, backsides, bottom' | ||||
tām 'woman's breast' | dom 'breast' | ||||
mās 'to look, observe' | max, ma, mahe 'to see' | ||||
kuāx(ai) 'to suffer' | kayau 'ache, sore' |
The following sound changes and correspondences should be noted:
The Comecrudo, Cotoname, Karankawa, Coahuilteco, Solano, and Maratino data below are all from Swanton (1940). [5] The Quinigua data is from Gursky (1964), [6] which in turn is from del Hoyo (1960). [7] Naolan is from Weitlaner (1948), [8] and Tonkawa is from Hoijer (1949). [9]
language | head | hair | eye | ear | nose | tooth | tongue | mouth | hand | foot | breast | meat | blood | bone | person | name |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Comecrudo | eláx | eláx, emól | u-i | alí | yáx̣ | í | expén | xál | mapí | emí, lemí | kném | ewé, kai | kiál | ehûei, klemí, xí | estók | lekaú |
Cotoname | makuát | makuát | arókwan | yá-ĕx | ayésim | kĕnám | kemás | sä'x | xuaináxe | |||||||
Karankawa | en-okea | ekia aikui | em-ikus | em-ai aluak | é, dolonakin | a-lean | emi-akwoi | étsma | eham, kékeya | kanín | ahaks, tecoyu, úci, yámawe | |||||
Tonkawa | taˑkey | xʔaˑk | nemtan-xaˑ | henicxayʔan | yamʔacxan | ne̠ta̠le- | kala | nota- | naˑtan | ʔawas | ʔoˑn | ne̠kame- | tickan | hes-tewe-(toˑ-) 'to name (him)' | ||
Coahuilteco | māux | tām | ahāuh | kuās, hātz | pīlam | aux | ||||||||||
Solano | nikaog | |||||||||||||||
Maratino | migtikui | |||||||||||||||
Quinigua | kai | |||||||||||||||
Naolan | mi yuːhu; ma yoho (my) | ma naːme; manáme (of deer) |
language | dog | fish | louse | tree | leaf | flower | water | fire | stone | earth | salt | road | eat | die | I | you |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Comecrudo | ketuaú, klám | atuís, selaú | ak 'blackish louse' | xaí | sel | awaí, exnó, xaí, pawaí | áx̣ | klewém, len | woyekuél | kamlá | sepén | ál | to, kai | kamaú, plau, pokuét | na, ye-inán, yén | nánã |
Cotoname | kowá-u | áx̣ | mánĕx | pén | dá-än | haháme | wátĕxo | |||||||||
Karankawa | kec | áṃ, kiles | akwiní | klai, komkom | húmhe, kwátci, kwoilesem | dem, ketac | aknámas | náyi | áwa | |||||||
Tonkawa | ʔekˑan | neswalʔan | xaˑsoy-tlc | nahen- | ʔaˑx | mʔelʔan | yatexan | haˑc | mamʔe- | naˑx | ya̠xa- | hewawa- | saˑ- | naˑ-ya | ||
Coahuilteco | talōm | tāp | hām | xūm, tzam | na, tzin | |||||||||||
Solano | apam | tciene | namō 'eat it' | na- (?) | ||||||||||||
Maratino | migtikui | paahtcu 'kill' | ||||||||||||||
Quinigua | karama | ama, ami; ka | ana | ka, kwa, wa | pixa | ama | ama; ka(ene) | |||||||||
Naolan | mi; míː | mi koːl; ma koːl (my) | mi, ma (poss.) |
The Indigenous languages of the Americas are a diverse group of languages that originated in the Americas prior to colonization, many of which continue to be spoken. Over a thousand of these languages are still used today, while many more are now extinct. The Indigenous languages of the Americas are not all related to each other; instead, they are classified into a hundred or so language families, as well as a number of extinct languages that are unclassified due to the lack of information on them.
The Hokan language family is a hypothetical grouping of a dozen small language families spoken mainly in California, Arizona, and Baja California.
The Uto-Aztecan languages are a family of indigenous languages of the Americas, consisting of over thirty languages. Uto-Aztecan languages are found almost entirely in the Western United States and Mexico. The name of the language family reflects the common ancestry of the Ute language of Utah and the Nahuan languages of Mexico.
The Oto-Manguean or Otomanguean languages are a large family comprising several subfamilies of indigenous languages of the Americas. All of the Oto-Manguean languages that are now spoken are indigenous to Mexico, but the Manguean branch of the family, which is now extinct, was spoken as far south as Nicaragua and Costa Rica. Oto-Manguean is widely viewed as a proven language family.
Coahuiltecan was a proposed language family in John Wesley Powell's 1891 classification of Native American languages. Most linguists now reject the view that the Coahuiltecan peoples of southern Texas and adjacent Mexico spoke a single or related languages. Coahuiltecan continues to be a convenient collective term for the languages and people of this region.
Comecrudan refers to a group of possibly related languages spoken in the southernmost part of Texas and in northern Mexico along the Rio Grande of which Comecrudo is the best known. These were spoken by the Comecrudo people. Very little is known about these languages or the people who spoke them. Knowledge of them primarily consists of word lists collected by European missionaries and explorers. All Comecrudan languages are extinct.
Garza is an extinct Pakawan language of Texas and Mexico. It is known from two tribal names and twenty-one words recorded from the chief of the Garza by Jean-Louis Berlandier in 1828. At that time, the Garza all spoke Spanish and were acculturated. The Garza may have been the same as the Atanguaypacam tribe recorded in 1748. The Garza were called Meacknan or Miákan by the neighboring Cotoname while they called the Cotoname Yué. Garza is Spanish for "heron."
Coahuilteco was one of the Pakawan languages that was spoken in southern Texas and northeastern Coahuila (Mexico). It is now extinct.
Harry Hoijer was a linguist and anthropologist who worked on primarily Athabaskan languages and culture. He additionally documented the Tonkawa language, which is now extinct. Hoijer's few works make up the bulk of material on this language. Hoijer was a student of Edward Sapir.
The Tonkawa language was spoken in Oklahoma, Texas, and New Mexico by the Tonkawa people. A language isolate, with no known related languages, Tonkawa has not had L1 speakers since the mid 20th centiury. Most Tonkawa people now only speak English, but revitalization is underway.
Cotoname is a Pakawan language spoken by Native Americans indigenous to the lower Rio Grande Valley of northeastern Mexico and extreme southern Texas. Today it is extinct.
Solano is an unclassified extinct language formerly spoken in northeast Mexico and perhaps also in the neighboring U.S. state of Texas. It is a possible language isolate.
Alexis Manaster Ramer is a Polish-born American linguist.
Quinigua (Kiniwa) is an extinct language that was spoken in northeastern Mexico. Quinigua was spoken between the Sierra Madre Oriental and the Sierra Tamaulipa la Nueva, and between the Rio Grande and the Rio del Pilón Grande. It has no apparent relatives and remains unclassified.
Waikuri is an extinct language of southern Baja California spoken by the Waikuri or Guaycura people. The Jesuit priest Baegert documented words, sentences and texts in the language between 1751 and 1768.
Aranama (Araname), also known as Tamique, is an extinct unclassified language of Texas, USA. It was spoken by the Aranama and Tamique peoples at the Franciscan mission of Espíritu Santo de Zúñiga. It is only known from a two-word phrase from a non-native speaker: himiána tsáyi 'give me water!'. Variations on the name are Taranames, Jaranames ~ Xaranames ~ Charinames, Chaimamé, Hanáma ~ Hanáme.
The Coahuiltecan were various small, autonomous bands of Native Americans who inhabited the Rio Grande valley in what is now northeastern Mexico and southern Texas. The various Coahuiltecan groups were hunter gatherers. First encountered by Europeans in the 16th century, their population declined due to European diseases, slavery, and numerous small-scale wars fought against the Spanish, criollo, Apache, and other Indigenous groups.
The Guachichil language is an extinct language formerly spoken by the Guachichil and very little is known about it. It may have been an Uto-Aztecan language closely related to the Huichol language, or connected to the Coahuiltecan languages, though the latter hypothesis has now been rejected.
The Comecrudo people were an Indigenous people of Mexico, who lived in the northern state of Tamaulipas. They were a Coahuiltecan people.
The Tap Pilam Coahuiltecan Nation is a cultural heritage organization of individuals who identify as lineal descendants of the Coahuiltecan people. They have a nonprofit organization, the American Indians in Texas-Spanish Colonial Missions, based in San Antonio, Texas.
King, Kendall A., ed. (2008). Sustaining linguistic diversity: endangered and minority languages and language varieties. Georgetown University round table on languages and linguistics. Washington, D.C: Georgetown University Press. ISBN 978-1-58901-192-2. OCLC 132681435.