Cariban languages

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Cariban
Geographic
distribution		Mostly within north-central South America, with extensions in the southern Caribbean and in Central America.
Linguistic classification Je–Tupi–Carib?
  • Cariban
Glottolog cari1283
Cariban languages.png
Present location of Cariban languages, c. 2000, and probable extent in the 16th century.

The Cariban languages are a family of languages indigenous to north-eastern South America. They are widespread across northernmost South America, from the mouth of the Amazon River to the Colombian Andes, and they are also spoken in small pockets of central Brazil. The languages of the Cariban family are relatively closely related. There are about three dozen, but most are spoken only by a few hundred people. Macushi is the only language among them with numerous speakers, estimated at 30,000. The Cariban family is well known among linguists partly because one language in the family—Hixkaryana—has a default word order of object–verb–subject. Prior to their discovery of this, linguists believed that this order did not exist in any spoken natural language.

Contents

In the 16th century, Cariban peoples expanded into the Lesser Antilles. There they killed or displaced, and also mixed with the Arawak peoples who already inhabited the islands. The resulting language—Kalhíphona or Island Carib—was Carib in name but largely Arawak in substance. The Carib male conquerors took Arawak women as wives, and the latter passed on their own language on to the children. For a time, Arawak was spoken by women and children and Carib by adult men, but as each generation of Carib-Arawak boys reached adulthood, they acquired less Carib until only basic vocabulary and a few grammatical elements were left. That form of Island Carib became extinct in the Lesser Antilles in the 1920s, but it survives as Garífuna, or "Black Carib," in Central America. The gender distinction has dwindled to only a handful of words. Dominica is the only island in the eastern Caribbean to retain some of its pre-Columbian population, descendants of the Carib Indians, about 3,000 of whom live on the island's east coast.

Genetic relations

The Cariban languages share irregular morphology with the Jê and Tupian families. Ribeiro connects them all in a Je–Tupi–Carib family.[ citation needed ] Meira, Gildea, & Hoff (2010) note that likely morphemes in proto-Tupian and proto-Cariban are good candidates for being cognates, but that work so far is insufficient to make definitive statements.

Language contact

Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with the Guato, Kawapana, Nambikwara, Taruma, Warao, Arawak, Bororo, Jeoromitxi, Karaja, Rikbaktsa, and Tupi language families due to contact. [1]

Extensive lexical similarities between Cariban and various Macro-Jê languages suggest that Cariban languages had originated in the Lower Amazon region (rather than in the Guiana Highlands). There they were in contact with early forms of Macro-Jê languages, which were likely spoken in an area between the Parecis Plateau and upper Araguaia River. [1] : 425 

Family division

The Cariban languages are closely related. In many cases where one of the languages is more distinct, this is due to influence from neighboring languages rather than an indication that it is not closely related. According to Kaufman (2007), "Except for Opon, Yukpa, Pimenteira and Palmela (and possibly Panare), the Cariban languages are not very diverse phonologically and lexically (though more so than Romance, for example)." [2]

Previous classifications

Good data has been collected around ca. 2000 on most Cariban languages; classifications prior to that time (including Kaufman 2007, which relies on the earlier work) are unreliable.

Several such classifications have been published; the one shown here, by Derbyshire (1999) divides Cariban into seven branches. A traditional geographic classification into northern and southern branches is cross referenced with (N) or (S) after each language. [3]

The extinct Patagón de Perico language of northern Peru also appears to have been a Cariban language, perhaps close to Carijona. Yao is so poorly attested that Gildea believes it may never be classified.

Meira (2006)

Preliminary internal classification of the Cariban languages according to Sérgio Meira (2006): [4] : 169 

Gildea (2012)

As of Gildea (2012), there had not yet been time to fully reclassify the Cariban languages based on the new data. The list here is therefore tentative, though an improvement over the one above; the most secure branches are listed first, and only two of the extinct languages are addressed. [6]

Meira et al. (2015)

Meira, Birchall & Chousou-Polydouri (2015) give the following phylogenetic tree of Cariban, based on a computational phylogenetic analysis of 100-item Swadesh lists. [7]

Meira, Birchall & Chousou-Polydouri (2015) conclude that the Proto-Cariban homeland was located north of the Amazon River, and that there is no evidence for a northward migration from the south, as previously proposed by Rodrigues (1985). [8] Rather there were two southern migrations (Pekodian and Nahukwa into the Upper Xingu).

Jolkesky (2016)

Internal classification by Jolkesky (2016): [1]

(† = extinct)

Varieties

Below is a full list of Cariban language varieties listed by Loukotka (1968), including names of unattested varieties. [9]

Cariban language varieties listed by Loukotka (1968)

Western languages: Caraib / Calinago / Karib – language spoken by the insular and continental Caraibes, with many dialects:

  • Dialect of the insular Caraibes, once spoken on the Lesser Antilles Islands, now by only a few old individuals in a reserve on the island of Dominica.
  • Dialect of Pomeroon / Caribisi / Acarabisi – spoken on the Macarani River and Pomeroon River, Guyana.
  • Tabare / Cariña – dialect spoken by the inhabitants of the villages of El Guasey, Cachipo, Cachama, and San Joaquín de Parire (Mapicure) in the state of Anzoátegui and in the village of Tapaquire in the state of Bolívar, Venezuela.
  • Caribe – extinct dialect once spoken by the descendants of Caraibes and by the mixed population on the plains of Barcelona, states of Monagas and Anzoátegui, Venezuela.
  • Carif / Moreno – dialect combined with Arawakan, spoken by the Negro Indian mixed population of British Honduras, in Guatemala on the Gulf of Honduras, and on Roatan Island in Honduras, Central America.
  • Cariniaco – extinct dialect once spoken at the mouth of the Caura River, state of Bolívar, Venezuela.
  • Mayé – extinct dialect once spoken on the Casipore River, Amapá territory, Brazil. (Unattested.)
  • Paracoto – extinct dialect once spoken at the mouth of the Araguari River, Amapá and at the mouth of the Mana River, French Guiana. (Unattested.)
  • Carane – once spoken at the old mission of São Paulo d'Oiapoque, Amapá territory. (Unattested.)
  • Norac / Norag – once spoken on the Approuague River, French Guiana, later on the Anotarí River; now extinct. (Unattested.)
  • Itutan – once spoken on the lower course of the Casipore River and in the Serra Lombard, Amapá. (Unattested.)
  • Curucuane – once spoken on the lower course of the Casipore River, south of the Itutan tribe. (Unattested.)
  • Aricarí – once spoken near the Curucuane tribe on the lower course of the Calçoene River. (Unattested.)
  • Sapai – once spoken on the Mana River, French Guiana. (Unattested.)
  • Piriou – once spoken in French Guiana on the middle course of the Oyapoque River. (Unattested.)
  • Mersiou – once spoken on the Aratye River, Inini River, and Aua River, French Guiana, now probably extinct. (Unattested.)
  • Acoqua – once spoken at the sources of the Approuague River, and on the Camopi River, French Guiana. (Unattested.)
  • Wai – spoken on the Tamouri River, French Guiana; now perhaps extinct. (Unattested.)
  • Taira – spoken in the same colony as the Wai tribe on the Iracoubo River. (Unattested.)
  • Acuria – originally spoken on the Nickerie River and Coppename River, Suriname; now on the Berbice River, Guyana. (Unattested.)
  • Chacoi – spoken by a few mixed individuals between the Berbice River and Essequibo River, Guyana. (Unattested.)
  • Parabaiana – once spoken on the middle course of the Marouini River, French Guiana. (Unattested.)
  • Caicuchiana – once spoken in French Guiana, south of the Parabaiana tribe. (Unattested.)
Eastern languages
Trio group
Chiquena group
  • Chiquena / Shikiana – spoken on the Apiniwau River, Guyana, and at the sources of the Panemá River, Pará. (Farabee 1924, pp. 195–196.)
  • Zurumata – once spoken in a village of the same name on the upper course of the Trombetas River, Pará, now probably extinct. (Unattested.)
  • Ingarüne – spoken at the sources of the Panemá River and its tributaries. (Unattested.)
  • Salumá / Charúma – spoken between the upper courses of the Trombetas River, Uanabé River, and Tunúru River, Pará.
  • Prehnoma – spoken by a small tribe west of the Pianocoto tribe. (Unattested.)
  • Caicusiana – spoken on the Tunúru River south of the Salumá tribe. (Unattested.)
  • Tunayana – spoken between the middle courses of the Panemá River and Tunúru River. (Unattested.)
  • Sereu – spoken east of the sources of the Cachorro River. (Unattested.)
  • Cahuyana – spoken on the middle course of the Trombetas River. (Unattested.)
  • Marachó – spoken by an unknown tribe on the middle course of the Cuminá River. (Unattested.)
  • Pauxi / Pawiyana – spoken on the right bank of the middle course of the Erepecurú River (Cuminá River); now perhaps extinct.
  • Waríkyana – extinct language once spoken on the lower course of the Trombetas River. (Unattested.)
  • Uayeué – spoken on the Mapuera River and its tributary Urubú de Silves River.
  • Cachuena / Kaxiuâna / Casiana / Cachoarí – spoken by a few families at the mouth of the Cachorro River.
  • Mutuan – once spoken on the lower course of the Nhamundá River.
  • Cariguano – once spoken on the Panemá River. (Unattested.)
  • Conduri – extinct language once spoken at the mouth of the Nhamundá River. (Unattested.)
  • Paraugoaru – extinct language once spoken on the Capó River, a tributary of the Trombetas River. (Unattested.)
Waiwai group
Yauapery group
  • Yauapery / Atroahi – spoken on the middle course of the Yauapery River, state of Amazonas.
  • Uaimiri / Wahmirí – spoken at the sources of the Curiuaú River, state of Amazonas.
  • Crixaná / Quirixana – spoken between the middle course of the Yauapery River and the Curiuaú River, now probably extinct.
Pauishana group
Macusi group
  • Macusi / Makushí – spoken on the Rupununi River, Guyana, and at the sources of the Tacutu River and on the middle course of the Branco River, territory of Rio Branco, Brazil.
  • Monoicó – spoken on the Cotingo River, Brazil. (Unattested.)
  • Keseruma – spoken on the Tacutu River. (A. Meyer 1951.)
  • Asepáng – spoken to the south of the Keseruma tribe. (Unattested.)
  • Eliáng – spoken to the south of the Asepáng tribe. (Unattested.)
  • Pezacó – spoken to the south of the Eliáng tribe. (Unattested.)
  • Quenoloco – spoken at the sources of the Cotingo River. (Unattested.)
  • Teweia – spoken on the Cotingo River. (Unattested.)
  • Purucotó / Progoto – spoken on the Uraricapará River, territory of Rio Branco.
  • Wayumara / Azumara / Guimara – spoken between the Mucajaí River and Uraricoera River and in a part of Maracá Island.
  • Paraviyana / Paravilhana – extinct language once spoken between the Tacutu River and Caratirimani River, Rio Branco.
  • Zapara / Sapará – spoken in the middle and eastern parts of Maracá Island.
Pemón group
  • Taurepän / Taulipáng / Ipuricoto / Pemón – spoken between the Uraricuena River and Mount Roraima to the Caroní River, in the border zone of Brazil and Venezuela.
  • Arecuná – spoken at the sources of the Caroní River and Paragua River, state of Bolívar, Venezuela.
  • Ingaricó – spoken to the north of Mount Roraima, border region of Brazil and Venezuela.
  • Patamona – spoken on the Potaro River and Ireng River, Guyana. (F. Lutz 1912 passim, only a few words.)
  • Camaracoto – spoken in the state of Bolívar, Venezuela, on the Paragua River and Caroní River.
  • Arinagoto – once spoken on the Paragua River, state of Bolívar, now perhaps extinct. (Unattested.)
  • Paraparucota – once spoken between the Caura River and Cuchivero River, state of Bolívar; now extinct. (Unattested.)
  • Quiriquiripa – extinct language once spoken on the left bank of the Caura River. (Unattested.)
  • Aguaricoto – extinct language once spoken on the lower course of the Caura River, the same region. (Unattested.)
  • Serecong / Sarrakong – once spoken in the same region at the sources of the Mahú River. (Unattested.)
  • Chiricum – once spoken by the western neighbors of the Taurepán tribe in the Rio Branco territory. (Unattested.)
  • Achirigoto – once spoken on the left bank of the Caura River, middle course, in the state of Bolívar. (Unattested.)
  • Paudacoto – once spoken in the state of Bolívar at the sources of the Aro River. (Unattested.)
  • Cachirigoto – once spoken in the state of Bolívar south of the Camaracotó tribe. (Unattested.)
  • Barinagoto – once spoken at the mouth of the Caroní River, Bolívar state, Venezuela. (Unattested.)
  • Arebato – once spoken in the village of Cuchara on the Caura River in the state of Bolívar, now perhaps extinct. (Unattested.)
  • Armacoto – once spoken in the same region between the Paragua River and Merevari River. (Unattested.)
  • Mauitsi – once spoken at the sources of the Paragua River in the same region. (Unattested.)
  • Uaica / Waica – spoken by a few families on the Yuruari River and Cuyuni River, state of Bolívar.
  • Acawai / Capong – spoken in Guyana on the Moruca River, Cuyuni River, Acarabisi River, and Pomeroon River.
Maquiritaré group
  • Decuána / Deukwana / Maquiritaré – spoken on the Caura River, Ventuari River, Merevari River, and Auari River, state of Bolívar and Amazonas territory, Venezuela, and between the Cotingo River and Majari River, territory of Rio Branco, Brazil.
  • Yecuaná / Mayongcong – spoken on the Caura River southwest of the Arecuna tribe, state of Bolívar, Venezuela.
  • Ihuruána – spoken at the sources of the Ventuari River, territory of Amazonas, Venezuela.
  • Cunuaná / Kunuhana – spoken in the same territory at the sources of the Cunucunuma River. (only four words.)
  • Morononi – extinct language once spoken in the same territory on the Ventuari River. (Unattested.)
  • Puipuitene – extinct language once spoken on the same river in the same territory by the neighbors of the Decuaná tribe. (Unattested.)
  • Acariana – once spoken by the neighbors of the Morononi tribe on the Orinoco River. (Unattested.)
  • Ocomesiane – once spoken in the same region on the Padamo River. (Unattested.)
  • Areviriana – once spoken by the eastern neighbors of the Ihuruána tribe. (Unattested.)
  • Jure – once spoken on the left bank of the middle course of the Ventuari River. (Unattested.)
  • Pishauco / Pshavaco – once spoken on the Serra Tepequem, Rio Branco territory. (Unattested.)
  • Mejepure – once spoken on the left ban1e of the lower course of the Ventuari River. (Unattested.)
  • Aberiana – once spoken by the neighbors of the Acariana tribe on the upper course of the Orinoco River. (Unattested.)
Mapoyo group
  • Mapoyo / Nepoyo – spoken by a small tribe between the Parguaza River and Suapure River, state of Bolívar, Venezuela.
  • Carinuaca – extinct language once spoken in the area between the Ihuruána and Yauarána tribes, territory of Amazonas, Venezuela. (Unattested.)
  • Curasicana / Kurushikiána / Orechicano – once spoken at the sources of the Biehita River, now by only a few individuals. (Unattested.)
  • Wökiare / Uaiquire – unknown language spoken in the same region on the Paru River. (Unattested.)
  • Yauarána / Yabarána – language spoken in the same territory on the Manapiare River.
  • Quaqua – once spoken by the northern neighbors of the Mapoyo tribe. (Unattested.)
  • Guaquiri – once spoken by the northern neighbors of the Curasicana tribe. (Unattested.)
  • Pareca – spoken in the region west of the Cuchivero River, now probably extinct. (Unattested.)
  • Taparito – extinct language once spoken on the middle course of the Caura River. (Unattested.)
  • Cadupinapo – once spoken by the southern neighbors of the Achirigoto tribe. (Unattested.)
  • Tabajari – now probably extinct, once spoken on the left bank of the Erebato River, state of Bolívar. (Unattested.)
Panare group
  • Panáre – language of a small tribe, spoken at the sources of the Cuchivero River, state of Bolívar, Venezuela.
  • Abira – once spoken at the sources of the Manapiare River. (Unattested.)
  • Eye – once spoken by the southwestern neighbors of the Panáre tribe at the sources of the Cuchivero River. (Unattested.)
Tamanaco group
  • Tamanaco – extinct language once spoken along the Orinoco River from the mouth of the Caroni River to the mouth of the Cuchivero River, state of Bolívar, Venezuela.
  • Chayma / Guarapiche / Sayma – extinct language once spoken on the Guarapiche River, state of Anzoátegui, Venezuela.
  • Cumanagota – extinct language once spoken on the Cabo Codera and near Cumaná, state of Sucre, Venezuela.
  • Tivericoto – once spoken on the coast of the state of Monagas, Venezuela
  • Palenque – once spoken between the Unare River and Tamanaco River, Guárico state.
  • Caraca – once spoken around the modern capital of Caracas, Venezuela. (A. Espinosa (Vazquez de Espinosa) 1948, pp. 36–37, only a few words.)
  • Ciparigoto – extinct language once spoken on the Yaracuy River and Aroa River, state of Yaracuy. (Unattested.)
  • Teque – once spoken in the Guaire valley, state of Miranda. (Unattested.)
  • Tacarigua – once spoken around Lake Valencia, Miranda. (Unattested.)
  • Toromaina – once spoken on the San Pedro River, federal district of Venezuela. (Unattested.)
  • Arbaco – once spoken around the modern city of Victoria, state of Aragua. (Unattested.)
  • Meregoto – once spoken on the western shore of Lake Valencia in the state of Aragua. (Unattested.)
  • Quiriquire – extinct language once spoken on the Tuy River and Misoa River, state of Miranda. (Oramas 1918a, only a few patronyms.)
  • Chapacuare – once spoken in the Pascua valley, state of Guárico. (Unattested.)
  • Tarma – once spoken near the modern city of Maracay, state of Aragua. (Unattested.)
  • Mariche – once spoken in the Baruta valley, state of Miranda. (Unattested.)
  • Guayqueri – extinct language once spoken on the Paoviejo River, state of Cojedes. (Gumilla 1745, pt. 2, pp. 67–68, only one phrase.) [10]
  • Tomuza – once spoken between the Chico River and Piritú River, states of Miranda and Anzoátegui. (Unattested.)
  • Haerena / Guarena – once spoken between the Guarenas River and Guatire River, state of Anzoátegui. (Unattested.)
  • Piritú – once spoken around the modern city of Puerto Píritu, state of Anzoátegui. (Unattested.)
  • Tagare – once spoken on the coast of the Gulf of Cariaco, state of Sucre. (Unattested.)
  • Pariagoto / Guayuno – extinct language once spoken on the Paria Peninsula in the state of Sucre.
  • Chamaygua – once spoken in the state of Sucre by the neighbors of the Cumanagota tribe. (Unattested.)
Yao group
  • Yao / Anacaioury – language once spoken by two tribes: one on the western part of the island of Trinidad; the other in French Guiana on the Ivaricopo River and Cau River.
Shebayi group
  • Shebayi / Supaye – extinct language once spoken in the Guianas; exact location is unknown.
Motilon group
  • Yupe / Motilon – spoken by many tribes in the Sierra de Perijá, state of Zulia, Venezuela, and in the department of Magdalena, Colombia. Dialects:
  • Macoa – spoken on the Yasa River and Negro River, Zulia.
  • Manastara – spoken on the Becerril River, Zulia.
  • Maraca – spoken by a tribe at the source of the Machigue River and on the Maraca River, Magdalena.
  • Parirí – spoken to the south of the Apon River.
  • Shapáru / Chaparro – spoken by the western neighbors of the Parirí tribe, Zulia.
  • Uasamo – spoken in the same area by the northern neighbors of the Shapáru tribe. (Unattested.)
  • Susa – spoken in the central part of the Sierra de Perijá, Magdalena. (Unattested.)
  • Manaure – spoken on the left bank of the lower course of the La Paz River, Magdalena. (Unattested.)
  • Tucushmo – spoken by the northern neighbors of the Iroca tribe, Magdalena. (Unattested.)
  • Socorpa – spoken in the same area by the northern neighbors of the Maracá tribe. (Unattested.)
  • Curumaní – spoken south of the Tucui River, Magdalena. (Unattested.)
  • Socomba – spoken between the sources of the Maracá River and Tucui River, formerly also on the Buenavista River, Magdalena. (Unattested.)
  • Tucuco – spoken at the sources of the Tucuco River, Zulia. (Unattested.)
  • Shiquimu – spoken by the southwestern neighbors of the Shaparu tribe, Zulia. (Unattested.)
  • Irapa – spoken by the eastern neighbors of the Shiguimu tribe. (Unattested.)
  • Pshicacuo – spoken by the western neighbors of the Tucuco tribe. (Unattested.)
  • Mishorca – spoken at the sources of the Tucuco River by the neighbors of the Pariri tribe. (Unattested.)
  • Yapreria / Sabril – spoken at the sources of the Palmar River, Zulia. (Anonymous Madrid h.)
  • Coyaima / Tupe – extinct language once spoken on the César River, Magdalena. (Castro Trespalacios 1946, only a few patronyms.)
  • Burede – once spoken at the sources of the Socuy River, Zulia. (Unattested.)
  • Pemeno – once spoken at the mouth of the Escalante River, Zulia. (Unattested.)
  • Bubure / Bobure – once spoken in the state of Zulia around the modern cities of Bobures and Gibraltar. (Unattested.)
  • Quenagua – extinct language once spoken in Espiritu Santo Valley in the state of Zulia. (Unattested.)
  • Umaquena – once spoken on the Umaquena River, Zulia. (Unattested.)
  • Sunesua – once spoken by the southern neighbors of the Quenaga tribe in the Espiritu Santo Valley, Zulia. (Unattested.)
  • Lobatera – once spoken around the modern city of Lobatera, state of Táchira. (Unattested.)
  • Táchira – once spoken on the Táchira River, state of Táchira. (Unattested.)
  • Tapano – once spoken in the state of Mérida between Lake Onia and Lake Motilon. (Unattested.)
  • Miyuse – once spoken in the state of Mérida on the Mucujepe River and Tucani River. (Unattested.)
Pijao group
Opone group
  • Opone – extinct language once spoken on the Opone River, department of Santander, Colombia.
  • Carare – spoken by a few individuals on the Carare River in the department of Santander.
  • Yariguí – once spoken on the Sogamoso River and in Barranca Bermeja in the same department. (Unattested.)
  • Hacaritama – once spoken around present-day Hacaritama city in the department of Santander.
  • Xiriguana – extinct language of a tribe once living in the department of Santander in the Cordillera de Lebaja. (Unattested.)
  • Carate – once spoken around the modern city of Ocaña, department of Norte de Santander. (Unattested.)
  • Corbago – once spoken in the department of Magdalena in the Sierra de Mene. (Unattested.)
  • Guane – once spoken in the department of Santander at the sources of the Tarare River. (Gumilla 1745, pt. 2, p. 40, only two words.)
  • Chinato – extinct language once spoken on the upper course of the Zulia River, department of Norte de Santander, around the modern city of Cúcuta. (Unattested.)
  • Zorca – once spoken in the same department in the San Cristóbal Valley (Unattested.)
  • Cariquena – once spoken on the Cariquena River in the state of Táchira, Venezuela. (Unattested.)
  • Capacho – once spoken around the village of Capacho in the state of Táchira, Venezuela. (Unattested.)
Carijona group
  • Guaque / Huaque / Murcielaga – extinct language once spoken on the Inganos River, Caquetá territory, Colombia.
  • Carijona / Kalihóna – language now spoken by a few individuals on the middle course of the Caquetá River, territory of Caquetá.
  • Umáua / Hiánocoto / Máua – language spoken at the sources of the Apoporis River in the territory of Caquetá.
  • Saha / Tsahatsaha – spoken in the territory of Caquetá between the Cuemani River and Yarí River. (Unattested.)
  • Riama – spoken between the Yari River, Apoporis River, and Vaupés River, territories of Caquetá and Vaupés. (Unattested.)
  • Mahotoyana – spoken in the territory of Vaupés on the Macaya River. (Unattested.)
  • Ajajú – unknown language spoken on the Ajaju River, Amazonas territory. (Unattested.)
Patagon group
  • Patagon – extinct language once spoken in the villages of Paca, Olipanche, and Bagua and around the modern city of Jaén, department of Cajamarca, Peru. (only a few words.)
Arara group
Palmela group
Pimenteira group
  • Pimenteira – Portuguese name of an extinct language the original name of which is unknown, spoken once at the sources of the Sant' Anna River and on Lake Pimenteira and between the Piauí River and Gurgueia River, state of Piauí, Brazil.
Xingú group
  • Yaruma / Aruma – spoken at the sources of the Paranaíba River, state of Mato Grosso, now perhaps extinct.
  • Bacairí / Bacaery – originally spoken between the Batoví River and Curisevú River, later on the Paranatinga River, now by only a few families on the Posto Simões Lopes, Mato Grosso.
  • Nahukwá / Naucuá / Anáukwá – language spoken between the Curisevú River and Culuene River, with many dialects:
    • Yanumakapü / Nahukwá proper – northern dialect.
    • Etagl – spoken in the village of Etagl.
    • Kuikutl / Guicurú / Cuicuro – spoken on the Culuene River in the village of Cuicuro.
    • Kalapalo / Apalaquiri – spoken in the village of the same name on the Culuene River.
    • Matipú / Matipuhy – spoken in the village of the same name on the right bank of the Curisevú River.
    • Yamarikuná – spoken on the Curisevú River.
    • Suva / Tsúva – spoken by a few people on the right bank of the Curisevú River. (Unattested.)
    • Naravute / Naravóto – spoken on the Curisevú River.
    • Aipats – spoken on the Curisevú River; now probably extinct. (Unattested.)
    • Auwáwiti – spoken by a few people on the Curisevú River. (Unattested.)

Vocabulary

Loukotka (1968) lists the following basic vocabulary items for the Cariban (Karaib) languages. [9]

LanguageBranchheadeyetoothmanonetwothree
YarumaXingúu-viteye-nguruu-ényó
BakairíXingúx-ináraxux-ánux-yériagurótotokoleleasageahágetokólo
NahukwáXingúu-víteröu-vínuruu-vireutotoálechiatakeetila
KuikutlXingúu-ritölu-ínuruu-ílutóto
KalapaloXingúu-íköreu-ínoru
YamarikunáXingúu-ínoruu-iglutóto
AráraAráramuchínaoñurumayériukonenáneatagataganané
PariríAráramũchíunguruheéngol'ügóronanéatágatáganane
ApingiArárai-montxiangrungoyeriukonetoinéasakoroaséruao
PalmelaPalmelana-ápoónoyeréókaaropéahaohehua
PimenteiraPimenteirababuriönthuburüyarichä
PijaoPijaoluːntínkioréma
OponeOponeyu-úhyéuxórokírseneárokosásáura
CarareOponesü-okoyeo
GuaqueCarijonaxutuyeyerigire
CarijonaCarijonautuhéyénuruyérikiretéuisekeneréseaueré
UmáuaCarijonabútuheyenuːruyeːligelétéuisakéneledyelauele
PatagonPatagon
YupeMotilono-hárzaánokiíkokürpatukumarkókosárkokoserárko
ChaqueMotilono-harzaanókiíkokürpakumarkokasarkokosera
MacoaMotilonyu-wasáanukiyiːkomashákumárkokósakkoséra
MaracaMotilonyu-wasayo-nu
PariríMotilonyu-wásayá-nukiʔikokipantukumárkukósaʔ
ShapáruMotilonyu-wásayá-nuyikumárkokósa
IrocaMotilontʔkúmaː
Itoto MaimyTamanacoPùpooEnuryJeryItotoTewinAisakeAisoroaw
TivericotoTamanacoo-putpao-neanaovinokoorwa
PalenqueTamanaco
YaoYaoboppevokrehioselitewintageterewaw
ShebayiShebayiwa-kewüriwa-dakölinu-yeri
DecuánaMaquiritaré u-huhé énu yéde tokomo toːni hake aduáne
YecuanáMaquiritaré hóuf u-yenuru yeːri areifhe tauíni ake hedáue
CunuanáMaquiritaré hú-ha
IhuruánaMaquiritaré hú-he yeːde
MapoyoMapoyouastarixene-yonuruxe-ñeiritokomotóskenasakanetominiakeré
YauaránaMapoyoexne-oaixtéliexne-nuruexne-yélitokúnuenix-péteasákepetomeyákele
PanárePanáreoʔóyoʔón
TaurepánTaurepánupaiyénuu-yékuraiteukinánsákeʔenéseulúana
ArecunaTaurepánpu-paiyenúu-yéuaratitäukinángsakeineisélehaúvane
CamaracotoTaurepánpupai-toenu-towaratotaʔakintsaganeetserau
IngaricoTaurepánu-paíu-yenúu-yéorauóteukíngatsalongkongetseuluaong-kóng
UaicaTaurepánienuru
AcawaiTaurepányu-popoyenuruyuwínowtidzyineasakróasorwo
MacusiMacusipo-paitenuu-yekáuaratáetiwingsagarésiruane
KeserumaMacusiyenupemóngótivín
PurucotoMacusihau-pupehau-yenúhau-yéewalaitóaleiniiniperkuruinialé
WayumaraMacusii-hubéyenurúi-yelétotótuevinéasáleeseuluó
ParaviyanaMacusii-pupáe-rénialöe-lelömeimunteuénaköunienolaulé
ZaparáMacusiune-kapúu-yonútopúpesóitxemenétulekalenóoláno
YauaperyYauaperyki-yókembáki-ärimarabáasikiusono
UaimiriYauaperyki-fókopanamareːki-erikumutareːunionoːtukunumáuruanoː
OrixanáYauaperyu-paiu-iniu-yetéitiamontuimosananeburésarsiua
PauishanaPauishanapuːpoyoːnoyeyungweiníkenaːnaataːreãná-mokaːre
WaiwaiWaiwaia-tipirie-oruko-yóritatachewñéasakíchorohoko
ParucotoWaiwaio-yúlako-yalitukinkaréasakenéserkuané
UaiboiWaiwaiku-nurúkamuhí
HishcarianaWaiwaikui-kuturuku-yotamushitonishásakósorowão
BonariWaiwaiiri-opónuru-báyoréukeréabanépademakáuruá
ChiquenaChiquenaya-nũruyolisotowinaliasagasorawau
SalumaChiquenayiwu-tupuliye-nu
PauxiChiquenatoto
UayeuéChiquenavu-turúu-yaritotó
CachuenaChiquenayo-soruyo-núruyorétotótuinaríasákiosoruaul
MutuanChiquenako-nofatiyurú
TrioTrioí-pútupoye-nurui-yerikirítinkiökönövoyerau
UrucuyenaTrioputpíi-eúyi-eːdaokiríwanánashakenéheruáu
WamaTriowi-pupoye-nuruye-ri
TliometesenTriooba-tuwirien-nuruoliːenkilitonikinisokororoebemüni
OcomayanaTriou-nuye
PianocotoTrioye-neiyu-taliokirí
RangúTrio
WaianaEasterne-putiüye-nuruyéreokiriuaptöhakenéeheruaé
UpuruiEasterne-putpiʔiye-nuruyéreokiri
RucuyeneEasternité-purue-nuruyeréokiritavenésakenéhéléuʔau
ApalaiEasternu-pupuanuderierituaseniasakoroeseuʔau
AracajúEasternseresaapükaua
CaraibWesternbúpué-huluyeriuakuriábamabíamaeleva
GalibiWesternu-pupue-nuruyeréokiriawínokuotereva
CaribisiWesternye-pupoye-nuruwokiriówéokoorwá
CaribeWesternada-puxodherebuköreóbinókoórwa
CariniacoWesterné-nuruyeriokiriowiuaririorowa
CarifWesternnábulutágubáriugíriábanabiámaíruwa


LanguageBranchwaterfiresunmoonmaizejaguararrow
YarumaXingúpárukampóntsizinunó
BakairíXingúpárupátochíshinúnaanádzyiakápüráu
NahukwáXingútunaitóritinuneanáikerehüré
KuikutlXingútunañorotékelitinúnetonuríñe
KalapaloXingúitoːturúgitiñe
YamarikunáXingúlitinúne
AráraAráraparúkampottitinúnakonatokorópuiram
PariríAráraparúkampótititunóhonáthogrópuyrém
ApingiAráraparukampotchichinunoanatokoripirem
PalmelaPalmelatunávavayéyuñúñaéñaokóropuera
PimenteiraPimenteiratunavafundititinuluthauatoprümachöpürarü
PijaoPijaotánanuhúgihuílnúnaxaguáde
OponeOponetunáfotóbuenokanómuesixákeyahá
CarareOponekʔarabwenuñemenyepak'anye
GuaqueCarijonatunamaxotovehinunakaikuchi
CarijonaCarijonatunaapotobeinunuakaikusixarakue
UmáuaCarijonatuːnamahótowéinuːneanaːdzyikaikudzyihuːya
PatagonPatagontunáanás
YupeMotilonkunaguestagüichókunaméisóʔosamás
ChaqueMotilonkunahuetogichiokunomeisó
MacoaMotilonkúnahuétohuicholkuníkmeíshopuréyi
MaracaMotilonkuːnawhishtahuichokunueːshopuraye
PariríMotilonkánawuetawíchukúnu
ShapáruMotilonkúnawuéta
IrocaMotilonkuːnaesho
TamanacoTamanacodunáuaptoveyununaxexeakérepreu
ChaymaTamanacotunaapotovieyunoninamapokocheikupure
CumanagotaTamanacotunaveyunonumañazekozeikopreu
TivericotoTamanacotunaapotovéniano
PalenqueTamanacotunaekere
YaoYaotunáuapotoveyononaaruamapuru
ShebayiShebayiwekulüekirtrireheweri
DecuánaMaquiritaré tona wáto céi nona nakchi máedo haxkúdi
YecuanáMaquiritaré tuná wato zyi nuːna maro shimaːra
CunuanáMaquiritaré uáʔto shi núna shimáda
IhuruánaMaquiritaré tuná wáto zyiː nuːne
MapoyoMapoyotunakátunnunaoxonaiékireúbuʔare
YauaránaMapoyotúnawátoyãtonunúnenáchihékelepákuli
PanárePanáreechár-kungüeguakenakxadpoʔót
TaurepánTaurepántunáapógwéikapéianainkaikusépeléu
ArecunaTaurepántunaapoväikapeáaʔanaigkaikusipureu
CamaracotoTaurepánapoiʔbekapuianaiʔkakutsepurau
IngaricoTaurepántunáápowéikapéianaíkaikushípelé
UaicaTaurepántunaapokueynuna
AcawaiTaurepántunowatovieyununokaikushipulewa
MacusiMacusitunauatóweikapoianainkaikushíeriu
KeserumaMacusi
PurucotoMacusitunaapotówéinánõkaikudzépoyá
WayumaraMacusitúnawatóweyúnunámazyinákaikushiheló
ParaviyanaMacusidónavuatútamananonéainiaineköléarámöu
ZaparáMacusitunáwatówékapéianáeekeléurapóno
YauaperyYauaperytunáuatóeyúdéʔelikokoshíibikuari
UaimiriYauaperytunãuatoːeioːnunuebauhikúkúboimaprú
OrixanáYauaperytunáuatóueihuteparéeuáekeréupreu
PauishanaPauishanatunáuatóuainúnauátakauraːpa
WaiwaiWaiwaitunáwehtókamonunéyaypíwaywí
ParucotoWaiwaitunawituuchikapubeakeré
UaiboiWaiwaitunazyitónúna
HishcarianaWaiwaitonáwuhritókamaːnanoːnáwaiwí
BonariWaiwaitunáuatúweyukeripureːná
ChiquenaChiquenatunawihalasesiimhoklaho
SalumaChiquenatuna
PauxiChiquenatunaisirenuneuaupréu
UayeuéChiquenatunápiétokamonunámaipurikurumuri
CachuenaChiquenatunámirótóisósoimnóhonesekaikesúpraué
MutuanChiquenatunaritósoːrozyairúpurí
TrioTriotúnamataveyununöanaimaipuripléu
UrucuyenaTriotunámatouwinunamaipurípuréu
WamaTriotunamatoweipaora
TliometesenTriotonomatoweinunupotirerumashibulipureri
OcomayanaTriotunamatouwinuna
PianocotoTriotunamattowehnunaeñayemaipuripurau
RangúTriotumamatonuna
WaianaEasterntunauapotshishinunuöenaiyauéripleu
UpuruiEasterntunauapotshishinunuenaiyaueripiréu
RucuyeneEasterntunauapotchichinunuenaimaipuripiréu
ApalaiEasterntunaapotóchichinunóashinasemachipuripiróu
AracajúEasterntunauaptochichiyasüeuárapára
CaraibWesterntóneuátuhueyunúnúaoashikahikushibuleúa
GalibiWesterntunauatoveyununoauoasikaikusiplia
CaribisiWesterntunawatúwiyeyununopurewa
CaribeWesterntúnabedunúnoperöwa
CariniacoWesterntúnawatowedonunopuriui
CarifWesterndúnawátuuéyuhátauásgáigusiláru

Proto-language

Proto-Cariban
Reconstruction ofCariban languages

Proto-Cariban phonology according to Gildea (2012): [6] : 448 

Proto-Cariban consonants
ptk
mn
wrj
Proto-Cariban vowels
iɨu
eôo
a

Proto-Cariban reconstructions by Gildea (2007, 2012): [11] [12]

Proto-Cariban reconstructions by Gildea (2007, 2012)
glossProto-Carib
'sun'*titi
'moon'*nunô
'water (n)'*tuna
'sunlight'*awatinɨ
'star'*tirikô
'DESIDERATIVE'*(CV)te
'sand'*saka(w)
'sand'*samutu
'body'*jamun
'flesh, meat, body'*punu
'meat food'*ôtɨ
'water'*paru
'rain'*konopo
'person'*karipona
'man'*wôkɨrɨ
'husband'*nɨjo, *mɨjo
'eye'*ônu-ru
'ear'*para-rɨ
'nose'*ôwna-rɨ
'mouth'*mɨta-rɨ
'lip'*ôtipi-rɨ
'saliva'*ôtaku
'tooth'*(j)ô-rɨ
'tongue'*nuru
'one'*tôwinô
'two'*atjôkô(nô/ne)
'head'*pu-tupô
'forehead'*pe-rɨ
'leg'*pôre(-pɨ/pa)
'foot'*pupu-ru
'heel'*pu(pu)-tôpu
'sole of foot'*pɨta
'knee'*ôtjôkumu-ru
'neck'*pɨmɨ-rɨ
'breast'*manatɨ-rɨ
'chest'*puropi-rɨ
'buttocks'*pupɨtɨkɨ
'cheek'*peta
'forest'*jutu
'inside'*tawô
'to bite'*ôteka
'to give; to put'*utu
'hand'*ômija-rɨ, *amo-rɨ
'to do; to make; to put'*(tɨ)rɨ, *(t)ɨrɨ
'to gift O (with something)'*ekarama
'to put away'*arama
'belly'*wetVpu
'belly'*(e)wenɨ
'heart (guts); chest'*ôwanô
'liver'*ôre
'to close (tr. v)'*apuru
'to descend'*wɨpɨtô
'to see'*ône
'to hear'*ôta
'to know (tr. v)'*putu
'to know (postp)'*warô
'to sleep'*wônɨkɨ
'to sleep'*wetu(mɨ)
'to shoot; to kill'*(tɨ)wô, *(t)wô(nô)
'to drink'*woku-ru
'to drink'*ônɨrɨ
'to eat (intr. v)'*ôt-ôku
'to eat fruit'*ônapɨ
'to eat meat'*(t)ônô
'to eat flour/bread'*(t)ôku
'to eat nuts'*aku
'to grate (manioc)'*(tɨ)kɨ
'to bathe (O)'*(tɨ)pɨ
'to weave'*(tɨ)kapɨ
'to cook; to boil'*(tɨ)jô
'to take; to pull out/away'*(t)ôwɨ
'to throw out'*(tɨ)papo
'to gather fruit'*(tɨ)pôtɨ
'fire'*wepeto
'fire'*mapoto
'ash'*wôreiCV
'to light fire'*(t)urô
'to burn (intr. v)'*jatu
'to burn (tr. v)'*uk(w)a
'to fell tree/farm'*(tɨ)ma
'to go'*(wɨ-)tô(mô)
'to come'*(w)ôtepɨ
'to come'*(w)ômôkɨ
'to say'*(wɨ)ka(ti)
'to be; to say'*a(p)
'to dwell; to be'*(w)eti
'to enter'*(w)ômô(mi)
'REFLEXIVE'*(w)e-
'RECIPROCAL'*(w)ôte-
'beak'*potɨ-rɨ
'earth'*nono
'cloud'*kapurutu
'rope'*ôwa(-rɨ)
'hot'*atu(NV)
'cold'*atono
'cold'*t-ɨnotɨ-me
'good'*kure
'hard'*akɨpɨ
'snake'*ôkôju
'path'*ôtema(-rɨ)
'mountain'*(w)ɨpɨ
'older brother'*pipi
'grandchild'*pa-rɨ
'faeces'*wetɨ, *watô
'to defecate'*weka
'child'*mure
'shoulder'*mota-rɨ
'thigh'*petɨ
'hair'*(e)tipotɨ(-rɨ)
'to cut'*akôtô
'to take; to carry'*arô
'to seize'*apôti
'1SG'*ôwɨ-rô
'2SG'*ômô-rô
'2COLL'*ôm-jamo
'1INCL'*kɨnmô-rô
'1INCL'*kɨwɨ-rô
'1INCL.COLL'*kɨC-jamo
'1EXCL'*apina
'this (INAN)'*(t)ônɨ
'this (INAN)'*(t)ôrô
'this (ANIM)'*môtjô
'this (ANIM COLL)'*môtj-jamo
'that (INAN)'*mônɨ
'that (INAN)'*môrô
'that (ANIM)'*môkɨ-rô
'that (ANIM COLL)'*môk-jamo
'who?'*onôkɨ
'all'*ômerô
'grease; fat'*katɨ
'to grow'*atɨta, *anɨta
'thick'*tɨpɨtɨ-ma
'AUGMENTATIVE'*imô
'small'*pitikô
'woman'*wôriti
'woman'*pɨtɨ
'fish'*kana
'dog'*akôrô
'dog'*kaikuti
'louse'*(w)ajamô
'tree'*wewe, *jeje
'branch'*ekata
'arm'*apô-rɨ
'seed'*ôpɨ(-tɨpô)
'seed'*a-tɨpô
'seed; contents'*a-rɨ(-rɨ)
'seed'*ôna-tɨpô
'leaf'*jare
'root'*mitɨ
'bark, skin'*pitupô
'blood'*munu-ru
'red'*t-a(k)pi-re
'white'*t-a-(re)mutu-ne
'black'*t-puru-me/ke
'night'*koko
'nightfall (intr. v)'*koko-mamɨ
'bone'*j-ôtîpî-rî
'egg'*pumo
'horn'*retɨ-rɨ
'tail; penis'*arokɨ
'scrotum; testicle'*ômu(-ru)
'feather'*apôri-rɨ
'name'*ôtetɨ
'ant'*iraka
'ant'*kɨjawôko
'ant'*juku
'ant'*mɨkakô
'ant'*(n)mapu(nu)
'bow'*wɨrapa-rɨ
'deer'*(wɨ)kapawu
'deer'*karijakô
'grandfather'*tamo(ko)
'heavy'*amôti-ma/-ne
'to sit'*erew-ta/-ma
'lightning'*manan manan
'howler monkey'*arimi
'monkey'*itjo
'rib'*awo-tɨ
'to roast'*puru, *purô
'to run'*ekatu(mɨ)
'shadow'*amore-rɨ
'shadow'*ôkatu
'short'*tɨntɨ-tʲô
'to talk; to converse'*ôt-uru
'spider'*mojoti
'spider'*tjawaraka(ru)
'to tie'*(m)ômô
'today; now'*amenarô
'tomorrow'*koropo
'vagina'*ôrɨ
'to wait'*mômôku
'high'*kawô
'sun'*weju
'1SG'*u-
'3SG'*i-
'stone'*tôpu
'flesh, meat, body'*punu
'person'*wɨtoto
'jaguar'*kajkuti
'to bite'*eseka
'to find'*eporɨ
'to give; to put'*utu
'to close (tr. v)'*apuru
'to descend'*ôpinô
'to pierce'*atpo
'to shoot; to kill'*(tɨ)wô, *(t)wô(nô)
'to eat meat'*(t)ônô
'to grate (manioc)'*(tɨ)kɨ
'to go'*(wɨ-)tô(mô)
'to come'*(w)ôtepɨ
'to enter'*(w)ômô(mi)

See also

Further reading

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Carib language</span> Endangered South American Indigenous language

Carib or Kari'nja is a Cariban language spoken by the Kalina people (Caribs) of South America. It is spoken by around 7,400 mostly in Brazil, The Guianas, and Venezuela. The language is currently classified as highly endangered.

Panare is a Cariban language, spoken by the Panare, who number 3,000–4,000 and live in Bolivar State in southern Venezuela. Their main area is South of the town of Caicara del Orinoco, south of the Orinoco River. There are several subdialects of the language. The autonym for this language and people is e'ñepá, which has various senses depending on context, including 'people', 'indigenous-people', and 'Panare-people'. The term "Panare" itself is a Tupí word that means "friend." It is unusual in having object–verb–agent as one of its main word orders, the other being the more common verb–agent–object. It also displays the typologically "uncommon" property of an ergative–absolutive alignment in the present and a nominative–accusative alignment in the past.

The Aparai or Apalai are an indigenous people of Brazil, who live in Amapá and Pará states. A little community is located in French Guiana, in Antecume Pata. They were sedentary slash-and-burn farmers, necessitating periodic relocation as soil became exhausted, but also hunters and gatherers. They spoke a Carib language and in the 20th century their subsistence shifted towards craftwork as they adapted to modern Brazil and the cash economy.

Tiriyó is the Cariban language used in everyday life by the Tiriyó people, the majority of whom are monolingual. Although Tiriyó is the preferred spelling, the Tiriyó refer to themselves as tarëno; other variations, including tarano, tirió, and trio, exist. The Tiriyó are located on both sides of the Brazil-Suriname border in Lowland South America. Because Tiriyó is spoken by the entire Tiriyó population, its level of endangerment is low. However, it may be threatened by the presence of a newly installed radar station staffed by a considerable number of non-Indigenous people close to the main village.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Languages of Venezuela</span> Languages of the country and its people

The languages of Venezuela refers to the official languages and various dialects spoken in established communities within the country. In Venezuela, Castellan is the official language and is the mother tongue of the majority of Venezuelans. Although there is an established official language, there are countless languages of indigenous villages spoken throughout Venezuela, and various regions also have languages of their own.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pemon language</span> Cariban language spoken in Venezuela

The Pemon language, is an indigenous language of the Cariban family spoken by some 30,000 Pemon people, in Venezuela's Southeast, particularly in the Canaima National Park, in the Roraima State of Brazil and in Guyana.

Amonap, also known as Apalakiri, is a Cariban language spoken by the Kuikuro and Kalapalo peoples of Brazil, and formerly by the Matipu. It is spoken in seven villages along the Culuene River in the Xingu Indigenous Park of Mato Grosso.

Wapishana (Wapixana) is an Arawakan language of Guyana and Brazil. It is spoken by over 13,000 people on both sides of the Guyana-Brazil border.

Wayana is a language of the Cariban family, spoken by the Wayana people, who live mostly in the borderlands of French Guiana, Brazil, and Suriname.

Arára is a Cariban language of Pará, Brazil. It is spoken by the Arara and perhaps other related groups.

The Ikpeng language is the language of the Ikpeng people who live in the Xingu Indigenous National Park in Mato Grosso, Brazil. There are approximately 500 speakers. Ikpeng is a language with high transmission, meaning it is passed on from parent to child at a high rate, with all members speaking the language. The majority of members are also bilingual speakers of Portuguese. The Ikpeng language is part of the Carib (Karib) language family.

Yarumá is an extinct and poorly attested Cariban language. Kaufman (2007) placed it in his Arara branch, as does Gildea (1998).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Indigenous peoples in Guyana</span> Earliest inhabitants of Guyana

Indigenous peoples in Guyana, Native Guyanese or Amerindian Guyanese are Guyanese people who are of indigenous ancestry. They comprise approximately 9.16% of Guyana's population. Amerindians are credited with the invention of the canoe, as well as Cassava-based dishes and Guyanese pepperpot, the national dish of Guyana. Amerindian languages have also been incorporated in the lexicon of Guyanese Creole.

Sérgio Meira de Santa Cruz Oliveira is a Brazilian linguist who specializes in the Cariban and Tupian language families of lowland South America and in the Tiriyó language in particular. He has worked on the classification of the Cariban language family, and has collected primary linguistic data from speakers of 14 Cariban languages and 5 non-Cariban languages.

The Pidjanan languages are a subgroup of Arawakan languages of northern South America.

The Taranoan languages are a subgroup of the Cariban language family. The languages are spoken in Brazil, Suriname, and Colombia.

The Pekodian languages are a subgroup of the Cariban language family. The languages are spoken in Mato Grosso and Pará states of Brazil and make up the southernmost branch of Cariban.

The Parukotoan languages are a subgroup of the Cariban language family. The languages are spoken in Brazil, Suriname, and Guyana.

References

  1. 1 2 3 Jolkesky, Marcelo Pinho De Valhery. 2016. Estudo arqueo-ecolinguístico das terras tropicais sul-americanas . Ph.D. dissertation, University of Brasília.
  2. ↑ Kaufman, Terrence. 2007. "South America". In: R. E. Asher and Christopher Moseley (eds.), Atlas of the World’s Languages (2nd edition), 59–94. London: Routledge.
  3. ↑ Desmond Derbyshire, 1999. "Carib". In Dixon & Aikhenvald, eds., The Amazonian Languages. CUP.
  4. ↑ Meira, Sérgio. 2006. A família lingüística Caribe (Karíb). Revista de Estudos e Pesquisas v.3, n.1/2, p.157-174. Brasília: FUNAI. (PDF)
  5. ↑ Carvalho, Fernando O. de (2020). Tocantins Apiaká, Parirí and Yarumá as Members of the Pekodian Branch (Cariban). Revista Brasileira de Línguas Indígenas – RBLI. Macapá, v. 3, n. 1, p. 85-93, 2020.
  6. 1 2 Gildea, Spike. 2012. "Linguistic studies in the Cariban family", in Campbell & Grondona, eds, The Indigenous Languages of South America: A Comprehensive Guide. Berlin/Boston: De Gruyter Mouton.
  7. ↑ Meira S, Birchall J, Chousou-Polydouri S. 2015. A character-based internal classification of the Cariban family . Talk presented at the 48th Annual Meeting of the Societas Linguisticae Europaea, Leiden, Netherlands, Sept. 4.
  8. ↑ Rodrigues, Aryon. 1985. Evidence for Tupi-Carib relationships. In South American Indian Languages: Retrospect and Prospect, ed. HE Manelis Klein, LR Stark, pp. 371–404. Austin: University of Texas Press.
  9. 1 2 Loukotka, Čestmír (1968). Classification of South American Indian languages . Los Angeles: UCLA Latin American Center.
  10. ↑ Gumilla, Joseph. 1745. El Orinoco ilustrado, y defendido: Historia natural, civil, y geographica de este gran Rio, y de sus caudalosas vertientes. 2nd ed., in 2 pts. Madrid. (New ed., Barcelona, 1791.)
  11. ↑ Gildea, S. & Payne, D. (2007). Is Greenberg's "Macro-Carib" viable? In Boletim do Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi. Ciências Humanas, Belém, Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 19–72. Accessed from DiACL, 9 February 2020.
  12. ↑ Gildea, S. (2012). Linguistic studies in the Cariban family. In Campbell, L. & Grondona, V. (eds.), The Indigenous Languages of South America: A Comprehensive Guide. 441–494, Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. Accessed from DiACL Archived 2020-06-26 at the Wayback Machine , 9 February 2020.
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