Northeast Caucasian languages

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Northeast Caucasian
East Caucasian
Nakh-Daghestanian
North Caspian
Caspian
Geographic
distribution		 Caucasus
Linguistic classification One of the world's primary language families
Proto-language Proto-Northeast Caucasian
Subdivisions
Language codes
Glottolog nakh1245
Northeast Caucasian languages.png
   Avar–Andic
   Dargic
   Khinalug
   Lak
   Lezgic
   Nakh
   Tsezic
Main areas of Northeast Caucasian languages Northeast Caucasus languages map en.svg
Main areas of Northeast Caucasian languages

The Northeast Caucasian languages, also called East Caucasian, Nakh-Daghestani or Vainakh-Daghestani, or sometimes Caspian languages (from the Caspian Sea, in contrast to Pontic languages for the Northwest Caucasian languages), is a family of languages spoken in the Russian republics of Dagestan, Chechnya and Ingushetia and in Northern Azerbaijan as well as in Georgia and diaspora populations in Western Europe and the Middle East. According to Glottolog, there are currently 36 Nakh-Dagestanian languages.

Contents

Name of the family

Several names have been in use for this family. The most common term, Northeast Caucasian, contrasts the three established families of the Caucasian languages: Northeast Caucasian, Northwest Caucasian (Abkhaz–Adyghean) and South Caucasian (Kartvelian). This may be shortened to East Caucasian. The term Nakh(o)-Dagestanian can be taken to reflect a primary division of the family into Nakh and Dagestanian branches, a view which is no longer widely accepted, or Dagestanian can subsume the entire family. The rare term North Caspian (as in bordering the Caspian Sea) is only used in opposition to the use of North Pontic (as in bordering the Black Sea) for the Northwest Caucasian languages.

Linguistic features

Phonology

Historically, Northeast Caucasian phonemic inventories were thought to be smaller than those of the neighboring Northwest Caucasian family. However, more recent research has revealed that many Northeast Caucasian languages are much more phoneme-rich than previously believed, with some languages containing as many as 70 consonants. [1]

In addition to numerous front obstruents, many Northeast Caucasian languages also possess a number of back consonants, including uvulars, pharyngeals, and glottal stops and fricatives. Northeast Caucasian phonology is also notable for its use of numerous secondary articulations as contrastive features. Whereas English consonant classes are divided into voiced and voiceless phonemes, Northeast Caucasian languages are known to contrast voiced, voiceless, ejective and tense phones, which contributes to their large phonemic inventories. Some languages also include palatalization and labialization as contrastive features. [2] Most languages in this family contrast tense and weak consonants. Tense consonants are characterized by the intensiveness of articulation, which naturally leads to a lengthening of these consonants.

In contrast to the generally large consonant inventories of Northeast Caucasian languages, most languages in the family have relatively few vowels, although more on average than the Northwest Caucasian languages. [3] However, there are some exceptions to this trend, such as Chechen, which has at least twenty-eight vowels, diphthongs and triphthongs. [4]

Percentage of Northeast Caucasian languages by speakers

   Chechen (33.6%)
   Avar (18.9%)
   Lezgian (16.3%)
   Dargwa (12.1%)
   Ingush (8.0%)
   Lak (3.8%)
  Others (7.3%)

Morphology

These languages can be characterized by strong suffixal agglutination. Weak tendencies towards inflection may be noted as well. Nouns display covert nominal classification, but partially overt cases of secondary origin can be observed too. The number of noun classes in individual languages range from two to eight. Regarding grammatical number, there may be a distinction between singular and plural, plurality itself may impact the class to which a noun belongs. [5] In some cases, a grammatical collective is seen. Many languages distinguish local versus functional cases, [6] and to some degree also casus rectus versus casus obliquus .

The inflectional paradigms are often based on partially classifying productive stem extensions (absolutive and oblique, ergative and genitive inflection.)[ clarification needed ] Localization is mostly conveyed by postpositions, but it can be also partly based on preverbs. Noun phrases exhibit incomplete class agreement, group inflection[ clarification needed ] (on the noun) with partial attributive oblique marking, which may, in turn, carry a partially determining function.

Verbs do not agree with person, with a few exceptions like Lak, in which first and second persons are marked with the same suffix and verbs agree with the P argument, and Hunzib in which verbs agree with A argument. Evidentiality is prominent, with reported, sensory and epistemic moods all appearing as a way of conveying the evidence. Epistemic modality is often tied to the tense.

Ergativity

Most Northeast Caucasian languages exhibit an ergative–absolutive morphology. [7] This means that objects of transitive sentences and subjects of intransitive sentences both fall into a single grammatical case known as the absolutive. Subjects of transitive sentences, however, carry a different marking to indicate that they belong to a separate case, known as the ergative. [8] This distinction can be seen in the following two Archi sentences. Objects and subjects of intransitive sentences carry no suffix, which is represented by the null suffix, -∅. Meanwhile, agents of transitive sentences take the ergative suffix, -mu.

Intransitive sentence [9] Transitive sentence

buwa-∅

Mother-∅

d-irxːin

II.SG-work

buwa-∅ d-irxːin

Mother-∅ II.SG-work

Mother works.

buwa-mu

mother-ERG

xːalli-∅

bread-∅

b-ar-ši

III.SG-bake-PROG

b-i

II.SG-AUX

buwa-mu xːalli-∅ b-ar-ši b-i

mother-ERG bread-∅ III.SG-bake-PROG II.SG-AUX

Mother is baking the bread.

Noun classes

Northeast Caucasian languages have between two and eight noun classes. [3] In these languages, nouns are grouped into grammatical categories depending on certain semantic qualities, such as animacy and gender. Each noun class has a corresponding agreement prefix, which can attach to verbs or adjectives of that noun. Prefixes may also have plural forms, used in agreement with a plural noun. [10] The following table shows the noun–adjective agreement paradigm in the Tsez language.

Noun class [10] Adjectival phrase example
I (men)

Ø-igu

I.AGR.SG-good

aħo

shepherd

Ø-igu aħo

I.AGR.SG-good shepherd

Good shepherd

II (women)

y-igu

II.AGR.SG-good

baru

wife

y-igu baru

II.AGR.SG-good wife

Good wife

III (animals and inanimates)

b-igu

III.AGR.SG-good

ʕomoy

donkey

b-igu ʕomoy

III.AGR.SG-good donkey

Good donkey

IV (other inanimates)

r-igu

IV.AGR.SG-good

ʕoƛ’

spindle

r-igu ʕoƛ’

IV.AGR.SG-good spindle

Good spindle

In many Northeast Caucasian languages, as well as appearing on adjectives and verbs, agreement can also be found on parts of speech which are not usually able to agree in other language families – for example on adverbs, postpositions, particles, and even case-marked nouns and pronouns. [11] [12] In the example from Archi below, doːʕzub ‘big’ and abu ‘made’, but also the adverb ditːabu ‘quickly’ and the personal pronouns nenabu ‘we’ and belabu ‘to us’, all agree in number and gender with the argument in the absolutive case, χʕon ‘cow’.

nena<b>u

1PL.INCL.ERG<III.SG>

doːʕzu-b

be.big.ATTR-III.SG

χʕon

cow(III)[SG.ABS]

b-ela<b>u

III.SG-1PL.INCL.DAT<III.SG>

ditːa<b>u

quickly<III.SG>

χir

behind

a<b>u

<III.SG>make.PFV

nena<b>u doːʕzu-b χʕon b-ela<b>u ditːa<b>u χir a<b>u

1PL.INCL.ERG<III.SG> be.big.ATTR-III.SG cow(III)[SG.ABS] III.SG-1PL.INCL.DAT<III.SG> quickly<III.SG> behind <III.SG>make.PFV

‘We quickly drove the big cow to us (home).’ [13]

This kind of clausal agreement has been labelled ‘external agreement’. [14] The same term is also used for the (cross-linguistically even rarer) phenomenon where a converb agrees with an argument which lies outside the converb's own clause. This is seen in the following example from Northern Akhvakh, where mīʟō ‘not having gone’ has a masculine adverbial suffix (-ō), agreeing with hugu ek’wa ‘the man’.

[ĩk’a

long

ri-da-la

time-INT-ADD

m-īʟ-ō]

N-go.NEG-M[ADV]

hu-gu

DIST-LL

ek’wa-la

man-ADD

w-uʟ’-u-wudi.

M-die-M-PF3

[ĩk’a ri-da-la m-īʟ-ō] hu-gu ek’wa-la w-uʟ’-u-wudi.

long time-INT-ADD N-go.NEG-M[ADV] DIST-LL man-ADD M-die-M-PF3

‘Shortly after that (lit. ‘long time not having gone’), the man died.’ [15] Unknown glossing abbreviation(s) (help);

Language classification

Traditional classification (Nichols (2003)) Nakho-Dagestanian Family Tree.png
Traditional classification (Nichols (2003))
Latest attempt at internal classification (Schulze (2009)) Northeast Caucasian Family Tree.png
Latest attempt at internal classification (Schulze (2009))
Branching without relative chronology (Schulze (2009)) Northeast Caucasian Splits.png
Branching without relative chronology (Schulze (2009))

A long-time classification divided the family into Nakh and Dagestanian branches, whence the term Nakho-Dagestanian. [16] However, attempts at reconstructing the protolanguage suggest that the Nakh languages are no more divergent from Dagestanian than the various branches of Dagestanian are from each other, [17] although this is still not universally accepted. The following outline, based on the work of linguist Bernard Comrie and others, has been adopted by Ethnologue . An Avar–Andi–Dido branch was abandoned, but has been resurrected as the "New Type" languages in Schulze (2009, 2013) and Lak–Dargwa has likewise returned.

One factor complicating internal classification within the family is that the diachronic development of its respective branches is marked both by an extreme degree of diffusion and divergence followed by secondary convergence, which complicates the comparative method. [18]

Population data is from Ethnologue 16th ed.

Avar–Andic family

Spoken in the Northwest Dagestan highlands and western Dagestan. Avar is the lingua franca for these and the Tsezic languages and is the only literary language. Schulze (2009) gives the following family tree for the Avar–Andic languages:

Figures retrieved from Ethnologue. [19] These languages are spoken in the following rayons of Dagestan: Axvax, Botlikh, Buynaksk (Shura), Čarodinsky (Tsurib), Gergebil, Gumbetovsky (Baklul), Gunib, Karabudaxkent, Kazbekovsky (Dylym), Lavaša, Tsumada (Agvali), Untsukul, Xebda, Xunzaq and Zaqatala rayon in Azerbaijan.

Dargic (Dargin) dialect continuum

Spoken by 492,490 in Dagestan, as well as Azerbaijan, Central Asia and Ukraine. [20] Dargwa proper is a literary language.

Dargin

    • Northern-central group
      • Mehweb (1,300)
      • Gapshima (2,300)
      • Muira (35,000)
      • Tsudaqar-Usisha-Butri
      • Northern Dargwa (133,000)
        • Kadar
        • Murego-Gubden
        • Mugi
        • Upper Mulebki
        • Aqusha
          • Aqusha proper
          • Levashi
        • Urakhi
    • Southern group
      • Ashti-Kubachi
      • Sanzhi-Itsari (1,500-2,000)
      • Sanakari-Chakhrizhi (900, unclassified)
      • Amuzgi-Shiri (1,500-2,000)
        • Amuzgi
        • Shiri
      • Southwestern Dargwa (14,000)
        • Tanti (800)
        • Sirhwa
        • Upper Vurkuni
    • Chirag (2,100-2,400)
    • Kaitag group

Dargwa is spoken in the following rayons of Dagestan: Aquša, Kaitak, Kayakent, Kubači, Sergokala. Figures derived from Koryakov 2021. [21]

Khinalug (Xinalug) isolate

Spoken in Quba region of Azerbaijan.

Lak isolate

Spoken in the Central Dagestan highlands. Lak is a literary language.

Lak is spoken in two rayons of Dagestan: Kumux and Kuli (Vači).

Lezgic family

Spoken in the Southeast Dagestan highlands and in Northern Azerbaijan. The Lezgian language or, as the Lezgian people themselves call it, Лезги чlал (lezgi ch'al), is the biggest in terms of the number of native speakers of all the languages of the Lezgic group (other languages from this group include Tabasaran, Udi, Tsakhur and Rutul). They are spoken in the following rayons of Dagestan: Agul, Akhty, Derbent (Kvevar), Kasumxur, Kurakh, Magaramkent, Rutul, Tabasaran, Usukhchay, Khiv and Quba and Zaqatala in Azerbaijan.

Tabasaran was once thought to be the language with the largest number of grammatical cases at 54, which could, depending on the analysis, instead be the Tsez language with 64.

Lezgian and Tabasaran are literary languages.

All figures retrieved from Ethnologue. [24]

Nakh family

Spoken in Chechnya, Ingushetia and Georgia. Chechen and Ingush are official languages of their respective republics.

Tsezic (Didoic) family

Spoken mostly in Southwest Dagestan. None are literary languages. Formerly classified geographically as East Tsezic (Hinukh, Bezta) and West Tsezic (Tsez, Khwarshi, Hunzib), these languages may actually form different subgroupings[ clarification needed ] according to the latest research by Schulze (2009):

All figures except for Khwarshi were retrieved from Ethnologue. [29] These languages are spoken in the Tsunta and Bezhta areas of Dagestan.

Disputed connections to other families

North Caucasian family

Some linguists such as Sergei Starostin think that the Northeast and Northwest Caucasian languages are part of a wider North Caucasian family, [30] citing shared vocabulary and typological features as evidence. [31] This proposed family does not include the neighboring Kartvelian languages. [31] This hypothesis is questioned by some linguists. [32]

Connections to Hurrian and Urartian

Some linguists—notably Igor M. Diakonoff and Starostin—see evidence of a genealogical connection between the Northeast Caucasian family and the extinct languages Hurrian and Urartian. Hurrian was spoken in various parts of the Fertile Crescent in the 3rd and 2nd millennia BC. Urartian was the language of Urartu, a powerful state that existed between 1000 BC or earlier and 585 BC in the area centered on Lake Van in current Turkey. The two languages are classified together as the Hurro-Urartian family. Diakonoff proposed the name Alarodian for the union of Hurro-Urartian and Northeast Caucasian.

Some scholars, however, doubt that the language families are related [33] or believe that, while a connection is possible, the evidence is far from conclusive. [34] [35]

Proto-language

Proto-Northeast Caucasian
Reconstruction ofNortheast Caucasian languages

Below are selected Proto-Northeast Caucasian reconstructions of basic vocabulary items by Johanna Nichols, which she refers to as Proto-Nakh-Daghestanian. [36]

glossProto-Nakh-Daghestanian
eye*(b)ul, *(b)al
tooth*cVl-
tongue*maʒ-i
hand, arm*kV, *kol-
back (of body)*D=uqq’
heart*rVk’u / *Vrk’u
bile, gall*sttim
meat*(CV)=(lV)ƛƛ’
bear (animal)*sVʔin / *cVʔin / *čVʔin
sun*bVrVg
moon*baʒVr / *buʒVr
earth*(l)ončči
water*ɬɬin
fire*c’ar(i), *c’ad(i)
ashes*rV=uqq’ / *rV=uƛƛ’
road*D=eqq’ / *D=aqq’
name*cc’Vr, *cc’Vri
die, kill*D=Vƛ’
burn*D=Vk’
know*(=D=)Vc’
black*alč’i- (*ʕalč’i-)
long, far*(CV=)RVxx-
round*goRg / *gog-R-
dry*D=aqq’(u) / *D=uqq’
thin*(C)=uƛ’Vl-
what*sti-
one*cV (*cʕV ?)
five*(W)=ƛƛi / *ƛƛwi

Notation: C = consonant; V = vowel; D = gender affix

Possible connections to the origin of agriculture

The Proto-Northeast Caucasian language had many terms for agriculture and Johanna Nichols has suggested that its speakers may have been involved in the development of agriculture in the Fertile Crescent and only later moved north to the Caucasus. [37] Proto-NEC is reconstructed with words for concepts such as yoke (*...ƛ / *...ƛƛ’), as well as fruit trees such as apple (*hʕam(V)c / *hʕam(V)č) and pear (*qur / *qar; *qʕur ?), [36] that suggest agriculture was well developed before the proto-language broke up.

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nakh languages</span> Branch of the Northeast Caucasian language family

The Nakh languages are a group of languages within the Northeast Caucasian family, spoken chiefly by the Chechens and Ingush in the North Caucasus.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">North Caucasian languages</span> Proposed language family

The North Caucasian languages, sometimes called simply Caucasic, is a proposed language family consisting of a pair of well established language families spoken in the Caucasus, predominantly in the north, consisting of the Northwest Caucasian family and the Northeast Caucasian family. There are some 34 to 38 distinct North Caucasian languages.

The Alarodian languages are a proposed language family that encompasses the Northeast Caucasian (Nakh–Dagestanian) languages and the extinct Hurro-Urartian languages.

Hurro-Urartian is an extinct language family of the Ancient Near East, comprising only two known languages: Hurrian and Urartian.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Languages of the Caucasus</span> Diverse languages between the Black and Caspian seas

The Caucasian languages comprise a large and extremely varied array of languages spoken by more than ten million people in and around the Caucasus Mountains, which lie between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lezgian language</span> Northeast Caucasian language

Lezgian, also called Lezgi or Lezgin, is a Northeast Caucasian language. It is spoken by the Lezgins, who live in southern Dagestan (Russia); northern Azerbaijan; and to a much lesser degree Turkmenistan; Uzbekistan; Kazakhstan; Turkey, and other countries. It is a much-written literary language and an official language of Dagestan. It is classified as "vulnerable" by UNESCO's Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tabasaran language</span> Lezgic language of southern Dagestan, Russia

Tabasaran is a Northeast Caucasian language of the Lezgic branch. It is spoken by the Tabasaran people in the southern part of the Russian Republic of Dagestan. There are two main dialects: North (Khanag) and South Tabasaran. It has a literary language based on the Southern dialect, one of the official languages of Dagestan.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lak language</span> Northeast Caucasian language

Lak is a Northeast Caucasian language forming its own branch within this family. It is the language of the Lak people from the Russian autonomous republic of Dagestan, where it is one of six standardized languages. It is spoken by about 157,000 people.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ethnic groups in the Caucasus</span> Diverse group comprising more than 50 ethnic groups

The peoples of the Caucasus, or Caucasians, are a diverse group comprising more than 50 ethnic groups throughout the Caucasus.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bezhta language</span> Tsezic language of southwest Dagestan, Russia

The Bezhta language, also known as Kapucha, belongs to the Tsezic group of the North Caucasian language family. It is spoken by about 6,200 people in southern Dagestan, Russia

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Archi language</span> Lezgic language spoken in southern Russia

Archi is a Northeast Caucasian language spoken by the Archis in the village of Archib, southern Dagestan, Russia, and the six surrounding smaller villages.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hunzib language</span> Northeast Caucasian language spoken in Dagestan

Hunzib is a Northeast Caucasian language spoken by the Hunzib people in southern Dagestan, near the Russian border with Georgia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aghul language</span> Northeastern Caucasian language

Aghul is a Lezgic language spoken by the Aghuls in southern Dagestan, Russia and in Azerbaijan. It is spoken by about 33,200 people.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tsakhur language</span> Samur language of Azerbaijan and Dagestan, North Caucasus

Tsakhur is a Lezgic language spoken by the Tsakhurs in northern Azerbaijan and southwestern Dagestan (Russia). It is spoken by about 11,700 people in Azerbaijan and by about 10,600 people in Russia. The word Tsakhur derives from the name of a Dagestani village where speakers of this language make up the majority.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Khwarshi language</span> Northeast Caucasian language spoken in Dagestan

Khwarshi is a Northeast Caucasian language spoken in the Tsumadinsky-, Kizilyurtovsky- and Khasavyurtovsky districts of Dagestan by the Khwarshi people. The exact number of speakers is not known, but the linguist Zaira Khalilova, who has carried out fieldwork in the period from 2005 to 2009, gives the figure 8,500. Other sources give much lower figures, such as Ethnologue with the figure 1,870 and the latest population census of Russia with the figure 3,296. The low figures are because many Khwarshi have registered themselves as being Avar speakers, because Avar is their literary language.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chamalal language</span> Northeast Caucasian language

Chamalal is an Andic language of the Northeast Caucasian language family spoken in southwestern Dagestan, Russia by approximately 500 ethnic Chamalals. It has three quite distinct dialects, Gadyri, Gakvari, and Gigatl.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tsezic languages</span> One of the seven main branches of Northeast Caucasian language family

The Tsezic languages form one of the seven main branches of the Northeast Caucasian language family. It branches into Tsez–Hinukh and Bezhta–Hunzib–Khwarshi, according to research published in 2009. They were formerly classified geographically into East Tsezic and West Tsezic . The Avar language serves as the literary language for speakers of Tsezic languages.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chirag language</span> Northeast Caucasian language or dialect in Dagestan, Russia

Chirag is a language in the Dargin dialect continuum spoken in Dagestan, Russia. It is spoken around the village of Chirag, but some speakers have moved to Kaspiysk. Chirag is often considered a divergent dialect of Dargwa, despite not being mutually intelligible with literary Dargwa. Ethnologue lists it under the dialects of Dargwa but recognizes that it may be a separate language.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dargwa language</span> Northeast Caucasian language

Dargwa is a Northeast Caucasian language spoken by the Dargin people in the Russian republic Dagestan. This article discusses the literary dialect of the dialect continuum constituting the Dargin languages. It is based on the Aqusha and Urakhi dialects of Northern Dargin.

References

  1. ↑ Hewitt, George (2004). Introduction to the Study of the Languages of the Caucasus. Munich: Lincom Europaq. p. 49.
  2. ↑ Hewitt, George (2004). Introduction to the Study of the Languages of the Caucasus. Munich: Lincom Europa. pp. 49–54.
  3. 1 2 Matthews, W.K. (1951). Languages of the U.S.S.R. New York: Russel & Russel. p. 88.
  4. ↑ Hewitt, George (2004). Introduction to the Study of the Languages of the Caucasus. Lincom Europa. p. 58.
  5. ↑ Hewitt, George (2004). Introduction to the Study of the Languages of the Caucasus. Munich: Lincom Europa. p. 80.
  6. ↑ Hewitt, George (2004). Introduction to the Study of the Languages of the Caucasus. Munich: Lincom Europa. pp. 81–82.
  7. ↑ Dixon, R.M.W. (1987). Studies in Ergativity. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science Publishers B.V. p. 133.
  8. ↑ Van Valen, Robert D. (1981). "Grammatical Relations in Ergative Languages" (PDF). Studies in Language. 5 (3): 361–394. doi:10.1075/sl.5.3.05van . Retrieved 19 April 2013.
  9. ↑ Van Valin Jr., Robert D. (1983). "Grammatical Relations in Ergative Languages" (PDF). Studies in Language. 5 (3): 361–394. doi:10.1075/sl.5.3.05van . Retrieved 19 April 2013.
  10. 1 2 Plaster, Keith; et al. Noun classes grow on trees: noun classification in the North-East Caucasus. Language and Representations (Tentative). Retrieved 20 April 2013.
  11. ↑ Foley, Steven (25 February 2021), Polinsky, Maria (ed.), "Agreement in Languages of the Caucasus", The Oxford Handbook of Languages of the Caucasus, Oxford University Press, pp. 843–872, doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190690694.013.23, ISBN   978-0-19-069069-4 , retrieved 1 July 2021
  12. ↑ Aristar, Anthony (September 1992). "Greville Corbett, Gender. (Cambridge Textbooks in Linguistics.) Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991. Pp. xix + 363". Journal of Linguistics. 28 (2): 542–547. doi:10.1017/s0022226700015449. ISSN   0022-2267. S2CID   146676617.
  13. ↑ Bond, Oliver; Corbett, Greville G.; Chumakina, Marina; Brown, Dunstan, eds. (25 August 2016). "Archi". doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198747291.001.0001. ISBN   978-0-19-874729-1.
  14. ↑ "External agreement - Surrey Morphology Group". www.smg.surrey.ac.uk. Retrieved 1 July 2021.
  15. ↑ Creissels, Denis (13 January 2012), Gast, Volker; Diessel, Holger (eds.), "External agreement in the converbal construction of Northern Akhvakh", Clause Linkage in Cross-Linguistic Perspective, Berlin, Boston: DE GRUYTER, pp. 127–156, doi:10.1515/9783110280692.127, ISBN   978-3-11-028069-2 , retrieved 1 July 2021
  16. ↑ See Nichols (2003)
  17. ↑ See Schulze (2009)
  18. ↑ Wolfgang Schulze (2017). "11. The comparative method in Caucasian linguistics". In Joseph, Brian; Fritz, Mathias; Klein, Jared (eds.). Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics. De Gruyter Mouton. p. 106. ISBN   978-3-11-018614-7. The twenty-nine languages of East Caucasian are marked by both an extreme degree of diffusion/divergence and secondary convergence, which renders the application of the comparative method more difficult.
  19. ↑ "Ethnologue" . Retrieved 14 March 2015.
  20. ↑ "Ethnologue report for Dargwa" . Retrieved 18 April 2013.
  21. ↑ Koryakov, Yuri (1 January 2021). "Коряков (2021) Даргинские языки и их классификация [Dargwa languages and their classification]". Дурхъаси хазна. Сборник статей к 60-летию Р. О. Муталова / Ред. Т. А. Майсак, Н. Р. Сумбатова, Я. Г. Тестелец. М.: Буки Веди, 2021. — 480 с. —. ISBN   978-5-6045633-5-9.
  22. ↑ "Ethnologue report for Khinalugh" . Retrieved 18 April 2013.
  23. ↑ "Ethnologue report for Lak" . Retrieved 18 April 2013.
  24. ↑ "Ethnologue" . Retrieved 18 April 2013.
  25. ↑ "Bats". Ethnologue. Retrieved 14 March 2015.
  26. ↑ "Chechen". Ethnologue. Retrieved 14 March 2015.
  27. ↑ "Ingush". Ethnologue. Retrieved 14 March 2015.
  28. ↑ Khalilova, Zaira (2009). A Grammar of Khwarshi (PDF). University of Leiden: LOT, Netherlands. ISBN   978-90-78328-93-3.[ permanent dead link ]
  29. ↑ "Ethnologue".
  30. ↑ Pereltsvaig, Asya (2012). Languages of the World: An Introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 65.
  31. 1 2 Matthews, W.K. (1951). Languages of the U.S.S.R. New York: Russell & Russell. pp. 87–88.
  32. ↑ Nichols, J. 1997 "Nikolaev and Starostin's North Caucasian Etymological Dictionary and the Methodology of Long-Range Comparison: an assessment". Paper presented at the 10th Biennial Non-Slavic Languages (NSL) Conference, Chicago, 8–10 May 1997.
  33. ↑ Smeets, Rieks. "On Hurro-Urartian as an Eastern Caucasian language." Bibliotheca Orientalis XLVI (1989): 260–280.
  34. ↑ Zimansky, Paul (September 2011), "Urartian and the Urartians", in McMahon, Gregory; Steadman, Sharon (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia: (10,000–323 BCE), pp. 548–559, doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195376142.013.0024, Sayce, for example, considered a relationship with Georgian, 'or with any of the Caucasian languages such as Ude or Abkhas,' but admitted he lacked the tools to explore this. […] That Hurro-Urartian as a whole shared a yet earlier common ancestor with some of the numerous and comparatively obscure languages of the Caucasus is not improbable. […] Diakonoff and Starostin, in the most thorough attempt at finding a linkage yet published, have argued that Hurro-Urartian is a branch of the eastern Caucasian family […]. The etymologies, sound correspondences, and comparative morphologies these authors present are quite tentative and viewed with skepticism by many.
  35. ↑ Gamkrelidze, Thomas V.; Gudava, T.E. (1998), "Caucasian Languages", Encyclopædia Britannica, theories relating Caucasian with […] the non-Indo-European and non-Semitic languages of the ancient Middle East also lack sufficient evidence and must be considered as inconclusive
  36. 1 2 Nichols, Johanna. 2003. The Nakh-Daghestanian consonant correspondences. In Dee Ann Holisky and Kevin Tuite (eds.), Current Trends in Caucasian, East European and Inner Asian Linguistics: Papers in honor of Howard I. Aronson, 207–264. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. doi : 10.1075/cilt.246.14nic
  37. ↑ See Wuethrich 2000

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