Abkhaz,[b] also known as Abkhazian,[5][6] is a Northwest Caucasian language most closely related to Abaza. It is spoken mostly by the Abkhaz people. It is one of the official languages of Abkhazia,[a] where around 190,000 people speak it.[1] Furthermore, it is spoken by thousands of members of the Abkhazian diaspora in Turkey, Georgia's autonomous republic of Adjara, Syria, Jordan, and several Western countries. 27 October is the day of the Abkhazian language in Georgia.[7]
Abkhaz is a Northwest Caucasian language[8][9] and is thus related to Adyghe. The language of Abkhaz is especially close to Abaza, and they are sometimes considered dialects of the same language,[10][11]Abazgi, of which the literary dialects of Abkhaz and Abaza are simply two ends of a dialect continuum. Grammatically, the two are very similar; however, the differences in phonology are substantial, it also contains elements characteristic of Kabardian;[12][13] these are the main reasons for many others[14][15] to prefer keeping the two separate, while others[13][10] still refer to it as the Tapanta dialect of Abkhaz. Chirikba[16] mentions that there are possible indications that proto-Northwest Caucasian, could have divided firstly into proto-Circassian and to proto-Ubykh-Abkhaz; Ubykh then being the closest relative to Abkhaz, with it only later on being influenced by Circassian.
Geographical distribution
Distribution of Abkhaz in the Caucasus.
There is not an agreed number of speakers of Abkhaz, and there are widely different numbers. It is agreed that today most of the Abkhaz people do not live in Abkhazia. In the census conducted by the Republic of Abkhazia in 2011, Abkhazians comprised 50.8% of the population, around 122,175 people; of these 92,838 speaking it natively.[17][9] Only two of the original dialects are still spoken in Abkhazia. The Bzyp dialect is still spoken in its homeland northwest of Sukhumi, stretching from the Bzyp River to the western environs of Sukhumi and the Psyrtskha valley, whereas the Abzhywa dialect is spoken south-east of Sukhumi.[9][18][19] The rest of the Abkhaz speaking population inhabits other neighbouring areas.
The exact number of Abkhazians and Abkhaz speakers in Turkey is not clear. The Turkish census denotes 13,951, but the figures are dubious, since the numbers of Abkhazians that came from the beginning of the 19th century to the middle of the 20th have been documented at around 30 thousand.[20]Ethnologue gives 150,000 Abkhazians living in Turkey, of these 50,000 still speak the language.[1] The head of the Abkhaz federation says there are in between 500 and 700 thousand Abkhazians in Turkey.[21] In general, Abkhaz seems to have been lost by most of the descendants, and bilingualism being low except in some specific areas, although there seems to be an effort for the new generation to learn the language with public schools being able to teach Abkhaz and together with 7,836 second language speakers.[22][23][9] Abkhazian villages are concentrated around the cities of Adapazarı, Düzce, Sinop, Hendek and Samsun in the northern part, and in the west around cities such as Bilecik, Inegöl and Eskişehir; they are mainly found in the provinces of Sakarya and Bolu in the western part, and near the Çoruh river in the north-east.[24][9][1]
Historically the dialects of Sadz, Ahchypsy and Tsabal were located in Abkhazia; Sadz being spoken from the Bzyp river to the Matsesta River, and further to the north-west bordering the Sochypsta River.[25] Today they are exclusively spoken in the northwestern part of Turkey, specially in the Sakarya province, it being spoken in 14 villages.
The other major place where Abkhaz is spoken is in Karachay-Cherkessia, where the Northern dialects are spoken, although there they are considered as a separate language and form the literary Abaza language.[26][27] They are spoken by 37,831 people in Russia,[28] mostly in the south of Stavropol Krai in the area around Kislovodsk, and in the upper Kuma river area.[9]
Abkhaz is also spoken as a minority language around the world. There is a considerable number of Abkhaz speakers in Adjara in southern Georgia, with the diaspora concentrating itself around the capital Batumi,[29] with about 982 people considering Abkhaz their first language.[30] In the Russian census of 2010, 6,786 speakers of Abkhaz were reported in Russia.[28] In Ukraine there are around 1,458 according to the 2001 census, but of these only 317 speak Abkhazian.[31] There were also communities in Syria, Jordan and Iraq with around 5,000 Abkhazians,[32][9] although this number could reach 10,000 according to the Abkhazia's Foreign Ministry.[33] The biggest western diaspora is in Germany, with around 5,000 speakers,[34] but other communities are found in countries such as the United States, United Kingdom, Austria, France, Belgium and so on.
History
The earliest indisputable extant written records of the Abkhaz language are in the Arabic script, recorded by the Turkish traveller Evliya Çelebi in the 17th century.[35] Abkhaz has been used as a literary language for only about 100 years.
It was suggested that certain inscriptions on Ancient Greek pottery which had been considered nonsense are in fact written in Abkhaz-Adydge languages.[36] The methodology of the research was criticised and the results called improbable.[37]
In 1918, Tbilisi State University became the first institution of higher education to teach Abkhazian language. The founders of the university began to take care of the development and scientific study of the Abkhazian language. At the meeting of the Council of Professors held at Tbilisi State University in 1918, Ivane Javakhishvili noted the scientific importance of studying Caucasian languages. In 1918, by the decision of the Council of Professors, Petre Charaia was invited to teach the Abkhazian language, and from 1925, this mission was continued by Dimitri Gulia and Simon Janashia.[38][39]
Dialects
Classification
Abkhaz is generally viewed as having three major dialects:[40]
Abzhywa, spoken in the Caucasus, and named after the historical area of Abzhywa (Абжьыуа), sometimes referred to as Abzhui, the Russified form of the name (Abzhuiski dialekt, derived from the Russian form of the name for the area, Абжуа).
Bzyb or Bzyp, spoken in the Caucasus and in Turkey, and named after the Bzyb (Abkhaz: Бзыԥ) area.
Sadz, nowadays spoken only in Turkey, formerly also spoken between the rivers Bzyp and Khosta.
Below is a classification of Abkhaz dialects according to Chirikba (1996):[42]:xv
Common Abkhaz (Proto-Abkhaz)
North Abkhaz
Tapanta
Ashkharywa
South Abkhaz
Southwestern
Sadz
Southeastern
Ahchypsy, Bzyp
Tsabal, Abzhywa
General characteristics
In some form or the other, all dialects are richer in phonemes than the standard Abzhywa dialect.[43] The only dialects spoken in Abkhazia are Abzhywa and Bzyp. Northern dialects which are the basis for literary Abaza are spoken in Karachay-Cherkessia, while the other dialects such as Sadz are spoken in Turkey due to Russian invasions in the 19th century.[44][45][46] While most differences are phonetic, differences in the lexicon are present, although mostly due to exterior contact.[47] Bzyp contains the most preserved lexicon, with few borrowings. Abzhywa has adopted many loans from Kartvelian, specially Mingrelian; Sadz on the other hand has more words from Circassian. Northern dialects in general have more loanwords from Persian, Arabic, Turkish and Circassian.
Abkhaz has a very large number of consonants (58 in the literary dialect), with three-way voiced/voiceless/ejective and palatalized/labialized/plain distinctions. By contrast, the language has only two phonemically distinct vowels, which have several allophones depending on the palatal and/or labial quality of adjacent consonants.
Labialised alveolo-palatal fricatives are found in the Bzyp and Sadz dialects of Abkhaz, but not in Abzhywa. Plain alveolo-palatal consonants and the pharyngealised and labialised-pharyngealised uvular fricatives are unique to the Bzyp dialect.
The consonants highlighted in red and in brackets are the 4 kinds of labialisation described by Chirikba.[48]
1 2 Found in the Bzyp and Sadz dialects of Abkhaz, but not in Abzhywa.
Vowels
The nature of the vowels of Abkhaz is not clear. Some linguists,[49][50][51] characterise the vowel system as a 2 degree vertical vowel system; with the two vowels being distinguished by height, 'ә' being the high/close vowel, and 'а' being the low/open. This system would very closely resemble the one found in Adyghe. The quality of 'ә' in this case, is usually represented as [ɨ] if the vowel is in a stressed position, and being unaffected by its neighbouring consonants.
Other linguists[52][53] however, mainly Russian ones, describe the vowels differently. They describe the sound of 'ә' being completely different from [ɨ], and by their descriptions being closer to [ə]. The 'а' is described as being particularly back, likely [ɑ].
This article should specify the language of its non-English content, using {{lang}}, {{transliteration}} for transliterated languages, and {{IPA}} for phonetic transcriptions, with an appropriate ISO 639 code. Wikipedia's multilingual support templates may also be used.See why.(June 2022)
Typical of Northwest Caucasian languages, Abkhaz is an agglutinative language that relies heavily on affixation.[54] It has an ergative-absolutive typology, such that the subject of an intransitive verb functions identically to the object of a transitive verb.[55] Notably, Abkhaz expresses ergativity entirely through the ordering of subjects and objects within verb constructions[55] rather than through overt case marking as most other ergative languages do.[56]
All Latin transliterations in this section utilize the system explicated in Chirikba (2003) (see Abkhaz alphabet for the details).[57]
Abkhaz morphology features a highly complex verb system that could be called a "sentence in miniature."[58] Chirikba (2003) describes Abkhaz as a "verbocentric" language wherein verbs occupy the "central part of the morphology."[59] However, despite its complexity, Abkhaz verbal morphology is highly regular.[60]
Abkhaz, being an ergative language, makes a strong distinction between transitive and intransitive verbs, as well as dynamic and stative.
Stative verbs describe states of being, roughly analogous to copular phrases in English, as in дхәыҷуп (d-x˚əčә́-wə-p - "she is a child").[61] Dynamic verbs express direct actions, functioning more closely to standard English verbs. Dynamic verbs possess the full range of aspect, mood and tense forms, in contrast to statives, which do not.[61]
Some verbs, called inversives, combine certain features of both stative and dynamic verbs.[61]
Another important verbal distinction in Abkhaz is finite versus non-finite, referring to the duration of the action[clarification needed]. Finite verbs usually contain enough information to form a complete sentence, whereas non-finite verbs typically form dependent clauses.[61]
Finite
дызбеит
"I saw him/her""
Non-Finite
избаз
"whom I saw"
Verb stems can be derived in a number of ways, including compounding, affixation, reduplication or conversion from another part of speech.[62]
Roughly equivalent to the infinitive,[58] or to a so-called "verbal noun,"[63] the Masdar form of the verb resembles the English gerund. It is formed by the addition of a specific suffix to a bare verb stem, -ра (-ra) for a dynamic verb and -заара (-zaara) for a stative.[64]
аԥхьара
á-px’a-ra
ART-read-MSD
аԥхьара
á-px’a-ra
ART-read-MSD
"to read/be reading"
Various prefixes can be added to the Masdar to form entire dependent clauses, as in[58]
аԥибаҽра
a-pә́-j+ba-č-ra
ART-PREV-RECI-break-MSD
аԥибаҽра
a-pә́-j+ba-č-ra
ART-PREV-RECI-break-MSD
"breaking each other"
However, the fully conjugated personal Abkhaz verb forms are "templatic," with each grammatical distinction occupying a specific "slot" or "position" within the broader verb template.[65] Verbs are thus formed by the addition of various affixes to the verb stem; these affixes express such distinctions as transitivity, person and stative/dynamic quality, occupying rigid positions within the overall verb structure.[58] There is a high degree of agreement between verbs and other parts of speech.[58] Overall, the Abkhaz verb is constructed as follows:
Not all of these elements will necessarily co-occur in every verb. The individual parts of verb morphology are addressed below.
First Position
The first prefixing element of the verb complex expresses either the subject of an intransitive verb in the absolutive construction, or the direct object of a transitive verb in an ergative construction. The following table illustrates the various agreement markers which can occupy the first position.[67] These prefixes can either be in their long forms, containing the letters inside the parenthesis, or in the short forms that do not contain them. The rules for using them are the following:[68]
If the prefix is followed by a consonant cluster[clarification needed], the long form shall be used.
If the stress falls on the prefix, the long form shall be used
If the prefix is not followed by a consonant cluster, the short form shall be used.
If the stress does not fall on the prefix, the short form shall be used.
Person
Gender
Absolutive
Oblique
Ergative
sg.
pl.
sg.
pl.
sg.
pl.
1st
с(ы)-
ҳ(а)-
с(ы)-
ҳ(а)-
с(ы)- / з(ы)-
ҳ(а)- / аа-
2nd
H
M
у(ы)-
шә(ы)-
у(ы)-
шә(ы)-
у(ы)-
шә(ы)- / жә(ы)-
F
б(ы)-
б(ы)-
б(ы)-
NH
у(ы)-
у(ы)-
у(ы)-
3rd
H
M
д(ы)-
и(ы)-
и(ы)-
р(ы)- / д(ы)-
и(ы)-
р(ы)- / д(ы)-
F
л(ы)-
л(ы)-
NH
и(ы)-
а-
(н)а-
It is also possible for the possessive prefix ҽы́- (čə́-) in a reflexive construction or the relative prefix иы́- (jә́-) in a non-finite construction to occupy this position.[69]
Example of an absolutive construction with the intransitive subject in the first slot highlighted[69]
сцоит
s-cá-wa-jt
I(S)-go-PRES:DYN-FIN
сцоит
s-cá-wa-jt
I(S)-go-PRES:DYN-FIN
"I go."
Example of an ergative construction with the direct object in the first slot highlighted[69]
избоит
jə-z-ba-wá-jt
it(DO)-I(A)-see-PRES:DYN-FIN
избоит
jə-z-ba-wá-jt
it(DO)-I(A)-see-PRES:DYN-FIN
"I see it."
Example of a reflexive construction with the possessive prefix in the first slot[69]
лҽылшьуеит
l-čә́-l-šʹ-wa-jt
her(POSS)-REFL-she(A)-kill-PRES:DYN-FIN
лҽылшьуеит
l-čә́-l-šʹ-wa-jt
her(POSS)-REFL-she(A)-kill-PRES:DYN-FIN
"She kills herself."
Second Position
The second position is occupied by the indirect object or by the prefix аи- (aj-) for reciprocal pronouns equivalent to "each other" or "one another" in English.[69]
илысҭеит
jə-lә́-s-ta-ø-jt
it(DO)-to her(IO)-I(A)-give-AOR-DYN:FIN
илысҭеит
jə-lә́-s-ta-ø-jt
it(DO)-toher(IO)-I(A)-give-AOR-DYN:FIN
"I gave it to her."
Third Position
This position accommodates a number of prefixes.[69]
Preposition
Prefix
Relational
а́-
Benefactive
зы́- (zə́-)
Detrimental
цәы́- (c°ə́-)
Non-Volitional
а́мха- (ámxa-)
Comitative
ц- (c-)
Potential
з- (z-)
Relative
шы́- (šə́-)
Reciprocal
аи- (aj-)
исцәылгеит
jə-s-c°ə́--l-ga-ø-jt
it(DO)-me-DETR-she-take-AOR-DYN:FIN
исцәылгеит
jə-s-c°ə́--l-ga-ø-jt
it(DO)-me-DETR-she-take-AOR-DYN:FIN
"She took it from me against my will."
Second Indirect Object
Any indirect object occurring after the one in the second position occupies this position instead; a possessive prefix of stative verbs can also be placed here.[69]
исызлыиҭеит
jə-sə-z-lә́-j-ta-ø-jt
it(DO)-me(IO)-BENF-her(IO)-he(A)-give-AOR-DYN:FIN
исызлыиҭеит
jə-sə-z-lә́-j-ta-ø-jt
it(DO)-me(IO)-BENF-her(IO)-he(A)-give-AOR-DYN:FIN
"He gave it to her for me."
Reflexive
Where a possessive prefix exists in the first position, the reflexive prefix is placed here.[69]
лҽылшьуеит
l-čә́-l-šʹ-wa-jt
her(POSS)-REFL-she(A)-kill-PRES:DYN-FIN
лҽылшьуеит
l-čә́-l-šʹ-wa-jt
her(POSS)-REFL-she(A)-kill-PRES:DYN-FIN
"She kills herself."
Free Preverb
This position is occupied by preverbal elements which are not an explicit part of the verb stem.[69]
днатәеит
d-na-t’º-á-ø-jt
(s)he-PREV('thither')-sit-AOR-DYN:FIN
днатәеит
d-na-t’º-á-ø-jt
(s)he-PREV('thither')-sit-AOR-DYN:FIN
"(S)he sat down (for a moment)."
Stem Preverb
Preverbal elements that are explicitly attached to the verb stem take this position.[69]
иҟасҵоит
jə-q’a-s-c’a-wá-jt
it-SPREV-I-do-PRES:DYN-FIN
иҟасҵоит
jə-q’a-s-c’a-wá-jt
it-SPREV-I-do-PRES:DYN-FIN
"I am doing it."
Agent
The agreement marker corresponding to the agent (the subject of a transitive verb) takes this position.[69]
илысҭеит
jə-lә́-s-ta-ø-jt
it(DO)-to her(IO)-I(A)-give-AOR-DYN:FIN
илысҭеит
jə-lә́-s-ta-ø-jt
it(DO)-toher(IO)-I(A)-give-AOR-DYN:FIN
"I gave it to her."
Negation (Dynamic)
The negation prefix m- occupies this position in a dynamic verb construction.[69]
иҟасымҵе́ит
jə-q’a-sə-m-c’á-ø-jt
it(DO)-SPREV-I(A)-NEG-do-AOR-DYN:FIN
иҟасымҵе́ит
jə-q’a-sə-m-c’á-ø-jt
it(DO)-SPREV-I(A)-NEG-do-AOR-DYN:FIN
"I did not do it."
Causative
The causative prefix r- takes the final position before the verb stem.[69]
исзы́мырҽеит
jə-s-zә́-mə-r-čaj-ø-jt
it(DO)-I(A)-POT-NEG-CAUS-good-AOR-DYN:FIN
исзы́мырҽеит
jə-s-zә́-mə-r-čaj-ø-jt
it(DO)-I(A)-POT-NEG-CAUS-good-AOR-DYN:FIN
"I did not manage to make it better."
Extension
The first of the suffixing elements expresses adverbial information relating to "inside" (-la) or "outside" (-aa).[70]
иаҭа́игалеит
jə-tá-j-ga-la-ø-jt
it(DO)-SPREV-he(A)-bring-EXT-AOR-DYN:FIN
иаҭа́игалеит
jə-tá-j-ga-la-ø-jt
it(DO)-SPREV-he(A)-bring-EXT-AOR-DYN:FIN
"He brought it inside."
Number The suffix -kºá pluralizes a stative verb.[70]
итәақәаз
jə-t’ºá-kºá-z
REL-sit-PL-PAST:STAT:NFIN
итәақәаз
jə-t’ºá-kºá-z
REL-sit-PL-PAST:STAT:NFIN
"Those who were sitting."
Aspect
Several aspect markers occupy this position as suffixes.[71]
Aspect
Suffix
Progressive
-уа (-wa)
Excessive
-цәа (-c°a)
Habitual
-ла (-la)
Repetitive
-х
Emphatic
-ӡ
Tense
Several tense markers occupy this position, dependent upon whether the verb in question is stative or dynamic. Dynamic verbs have a richly developed tense paradigm incorporating tense and aspect distinctions. The table below illustrates these various dynamic tense forms using the verb агара (agara – "to take").[72]
Finite
Non-Finite
Example
English
Present
-уа-ит(-wá-jt’)
-уа(-wa)
дыргоит (dərgawájt’)
"They are taking him."
Aorist
-ит(-jt’)
-∅
дырге́ит (dərgájt’)
"They took him."
Future 1
-п (-p’)
-ра (-ra)
дыргап (dərgáp’)
"They will take him."
Future 2
-шт (-št’)
-ша (-ša)
дыргашт (dərgášt’)
"They will probably take him."
Perfect
-ҳьа-ит (-x’ájt’)
-хьоу (-x’áw)
дыргахьеит (dərgax’ájt’)
"They have taken him."
Imperfect
-уан (-wán)
-уаз (-wáz)
дыргон (dərgawán)
"They took him."
Past Indefinite
-н (-n)
-з (-z)
дырган (dərgán)
"They took him and then..."
Future Conditional 1
-рын (-rә́n)
-рыз (-rəz)
дыргарын (dərgarә́n)
"They would take him."
Future Conditional 2
-шан (-šan)
-шаз (-šaz)
дыргашан (dərgášan)
"They had to take him."
Pluperfect
-хьан (-x’án)
-хьаз (-x’az)
дыргахьан (dərgax’án)
"They had taken him."
Stative verbs, by contrast, lack this rich tense system, as illustrated below using the verb а́цәара (ácºara - "to be sleeping").[73]
Finite
Non-Finite
Example
English
Past
-н
-з
дыцәан (dә́cºan)
"he was sleeping."
Present
-уп
-у
дыцәоуп (dә́cºawp)
"he is sleeping."
Negation (Stative)
The negation prefix m- occupies this position in a stative verb construction.[70]
дтәам
d-t’ºa-m
(s)he-sit-NEG
дтәам
d-t’ºa-m
(s)he-sit-NEG
"(S)he is not sitting."
Ending Suffixes
The final position in the verb complex can accommodate any one of several mixed purpose markers.[70]
Purpose
Suffix
Dynamic-Finite
-ит (-jt')
Stative-Finite
-п (-p')
Conditional
-р (-r)
Emphatic
-еи (-aj)
Interrogative
-ма (-ma)
Subjunctive
-аа(и)т//-заа(и)т (-aajt'//-zaajt')
The imperative takes a few possible forms, depending upon the type of verb. Dynamic verbs form the imperative by the addition of agreement suffixes to a bare verb stem; intransitives include the subject and indirect object makers, whereas transitives include the direct object and absolutive. Thus[74]
шәихәаԥш
š˚-jә́-x˚a-pš
you:PL-him-look
шәихәаԥш
š˚-jә́-x˚a-pš
you:PL-him-look
"(you pl) look at him!"
Stative verbs form the imperative simply by adding the durative suffix -z to the verb stem. Thus[74]
Like verbs, Abkhaz nouns are formed by the addition of various prefixes and suffixes to a static noun stem.[59] Noun stems can be derived according to several different processes, including compounding, reduplication, or the addition of a derivational affix.[76]
The affixes mark number, definiteness and possession, as well as some case-like elements.[59] Taken as a whole, the entire morphological structure of the Abkhaz noun is as follows:
As with verbs, not all of these elements can occur at the same time. The individual parts of noun morphology are addressed below.
Article Affixes
There is a range of definiteness in Abkhaz. Those articles adhering to definite/generic categories appear as prefixes in the broader noun structure, whereas the indefinite is suffixed.[78]
Affix
Category
Example
а-
Generic
ауаҩы́ (awajºә́ - "person")
а́-
Specific
уи а́уаҩы (wә́j áwajºә́ - "this person")
-к
Indefinite
уаҩы́к (wajºә́k - "some person")
The absence of either article affix implies a zero reference implying universal quantifiers, or to express the total lack of a referent.
There are some semantic differences in article usage between the different dialects of Abkhaz.[79]
Inflectional Prefixes
Pronominal prefixes in Abkhaz
These are possessive prefixes which express grammatical person and noun class.[77] They come in two forms, the full and short ones. The full ones contain the vowels inside the parenthesis, whereas the short ones do not.
Person
Prefix
1st
с(ы)-
1st pl.
ҳ(а)-
2nd H:F
б(ы)-
2nd H:M
у-
2nd NH
у-
2nd pl.
шә(ы)-
3rd H:F
л(ы)-
3rd H:M
и-
3rd NH
а-
3rd pl.
р(ы)-
Quantifying Prefixes
These few prefixes add numeric information to the noun complex. Often, this takes the form of a numeral.[77]
рыхҩы-ԥацәа
rəxjºә́-pacºa
рыхҩы-ԥацәа
rəxjºә́-pacºa
"their three(HC) sons"
Inflectional Suffixes These suffixes convey either plural number or case-like adverbial information. Plural markers are addressed further below; the other possible inflectional suffixes are the following:[77]
The third-person singular non-human possessive marker, attached to a locative or directional postposition
Locative -ҿы́ (-č’ә́) or directional -хьы́ (-x’ә́) postpositions
Abkhaz distinguishes singular and plural; the singular is unmarked, whereas the plural is indicated by noun class-dependent suffixes.[80] There are several pluralizing suffixes, but the two most commonly used refer generally to the human and non-human noun classes.[80] There are instances where explicitly human nouns take non-human plural markers.[81]
Suffix
Noun Class
Example
-цәа (-cºa)
Human
а́бацәа (ábacºa – "fathers")
-қәа (-kºa)
Non-Human
аҽқәа́ (ačkºa - "horses")
There are also several plural endings that are of much narrower use.[80]
Suffix
Example
Usage
-аа
а́ԥсуаа (ápswaa - "Abkhazians")
Collective, referring to ethnicities, groups
-(а)ра (-(a)ra)
аса́ра (asára - "lambs")
Collective, with the added meaning of animal young (in some nouns with -s ending)
Nouns in Abkhaz are classified broadly according to a human/non-human paradigm, with the human class itself further subdivided into masculine and feminine gender.[79] Gender is a fairly weak concept in Abkhaz grammar, and gender distinctions undergo a fair degree of neutralization in several contexts, including personal pronouns, verb agreement and possession marking.[80] This class and gender system distinguishes Abkhaz from the other Northwest Caucasian languages.[80]
Vocative Affixes
Although there is no special vocative declension, the prefix уа- (wa-), when attached to a noun stem, can express a vocative form.
Abkhaz is a pro-drop language. Pronouns are not inflected, and verbal agreement is generally sufficient to indicate grammatical person.[83]
Person
Gender
Sing.
Pl.
1st
сарá
ҳарá
2nd
H
M
уарá
шәарá
F
барá
NH
уарá
3rd
H
M
иарá
дарá
F
ларá
NH
иарá
It is common in everyday speech to use a short version of the pronoun which omits the suffix -рá (-rá), although this is done less frequently with third-person pronouns.
In addition to noun-marking, possession can be indicated by adding the suffix -тәы́ (-t’˚ә́) to the short version of a personal pronoun. Thus:
Morphologically, adjectives are very similar to nouns, differing only in their syntactic function.[85] Similarly to nouns, adjective stems can be derived by compounding, reduplication and affixation.[86] When used attributively, adjectives follow the noun that they modify. Predicative adjectives, or those derived by suffixation, precede the noun.[85] Adjectives are formed according to the following paradigm:
The possessive prefix r- is used to show possessive agreement.[87]
рҭоурыхтә
rtawrә́xt’º
ҭагылазаашьа
tagә́lazaaš’a
рҭоурыхтә ҭагылазаашьа
rtawrә́xt’º tagә́lazaaš’a
"their historical situation"
Adjective Suffixes
These suffixes are added to the adjective stem to show agreement with the noun being modified.[87]
Agreement
Suffix
Intensive
-ӡа
Plural
-кәа (-k˚a)
Instrumental
-ла (-la)
Adverbial
-с (-s)
Comparative
-ҵас (-c’as)
Irreal
-шәа (-šºa)
Privative
-да (-da)
The comparative form of an adjective is formed using the comparative particle аиҳá (ajhá - "more"), which precedes the adjective. The superlative form is indicated by the intensifier suffix -ӡа.[87] Thus:
Abkhaz has used the Cyrillic script since 1862. The first alphabet was a 37-character Cyrillic alphabet invented by Baron Peter von Uslar. In 1909 a 55-letter Cyrillic alphabet was used. A 75-letter Latin script devised by a Russian/Georgian linguist Nikolai Marr lasted for 2 years 1926–1928 (during the Latinization campaign). The Georgian script was adopted and used between 1938 and 1954, after that the initial Cyrillic alphabet, designed in 1892 by Dmitry Gulia together with Konstantin Machavariani and modified in 1909 by Aleksey Chochua, was restored to use.
The Latin alphabet in Abkhaz is currently not in Unicode. Its inclusion was proposed in 2011. See also:
Status
Both Georgian and Abkhaz law enshrines an official status of the Abkhaz language in Abkhazia.
The 1992 law of Georgia, reiterated in the 1995 constitution, grants Abkhaz the status of second official language in the territory of Abkhazia — along with Georgian.
In November 2007, the de facto authorities of Abkhazia adopted a new law "on the state language of the Republic of Abkhazia" that mandates Abkhaz as the language of official communication. According to the law, all meetings held by the president, parliament, and government must be conducted in Abkhaz (instead of Russian, which is currently a de facto administrative language) from 2010, and all state officials will be obliged to use Abkhaz as their language of everyday business from 2015. Some, however, have considered the implementation of this law unrealistic and concerns have been made that it will drive people away from Abkhazia and hurt the independent press due to a significant share of non-Abkhaz speakers among ethnic minorities as well as Abkhaz themselves, and a shortage of teachers of Abkhaz. The law is an attempt to amend a situation where up to a third of the ethnic Abkhaz population are no longer capable of speaking their ethnic language, and even more are unable to read or write it; instead, Russian is the language most commonly used in public life at present.[88]
"All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood."
1 2 The political status of Abkhazia is disputed. Having unilaterally declared independence from Georgia in 1992, Abkhazia is formally recognised as an independent state by 5 UN member states (two other states previously recognised it but then withdrew their recognition), while the remainder of the international community recognizes it as de jure Georgian territory. Georgia continues to claim the area as its own territory, designating it as Russian-occupied territory.
In linguistics, an affix is a morpheme that is attached to a word stem to form a new word or word form. The main two categories are derivational and inflectional affixes. Derivational affixes, such as un-, -ation, anti-, pre- etc., introduce a semantic change to the word they are attached to. Inflectional affixes introduce a syntactic change, such as singular into plural, or present simple tense into present continuous or past tense by adding -ing, -ed to an English word. All of them are bound morphemes by definition; prefixes and suffixes may be separable affixes.
In linguistics, a noun class is a particular category of nouns. A noun may belong to a given class because of the characteristic features of its referent, such as gender, animacy, shape, but such designations are often clearly conventional. Some authors use the term "grammatical gender" as a synonym of "noun class", but others consider these different concepts. Noun classes should not be confused with noun classifiers.
The Northwest Caucasian languages, also called West Caucasian, Abkhazo-Adyghean, Abkhazo-Circassian, Circassic, or sometimes Pontic languages, is a family of languages spoken in the northwestern Caucasus region, chiefly in three Russian republics, the disputed territory of Abkhazia, Georgia, and Turkey, with smaller communities scattered throughout the Middle East.
The Abkhaz alphabet is a Cyrillic alphabet used for the Abkhaz language.
Burushaski is a language isolate, spoken by the Burusho people, who predominantly reside in northern Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan. There are also a few hundred speakers of this language in northern Jammu and Kashmir, India. In Pakistan, Burushaski is spoken by people in the Hunza District, the Nagar District, the northern Gilgit District, the Yasin Valley in the Gupis-Yasin District and the Ishkoman Valley of the northern Ghizer District. Their native region is located in northern Gilgit–Baltistan. It also borders the Pamir corridor to the north. In India, Burushaski is spoken in Botraj Mohalla of the Hari Parbat region in Srinagar. It is generally believed that the language was spoken in a much wider area in the past. It is also known as Werchikwar and Miśa:ski.
Ubykh is an extinct Northwest Caucasian language once spoken by the Ubykh people, a subgroup of Circassians who originally inhabited the eastern coast of the Black Sea before being deported en masse to the Ottoman Empire in the Circassian genocide.
Denaʼina, also Tanaina, is the Athabaskan language of the region surrounding Cook Inlet. It is geographically unique in Alaska as the only Alaska Athabaskan language to include territory which borders salt water. Four dialects are usually distinguished:
Upper Inlet, spoken in Eklutna, Knik, Susitna, Tyonek
Outer Inlet, spoken in Kenai, Kustatan, Seldovia
Iliamna, spoken in Pedro Bay, Old Iliamna, Lake Iliamna area
Inland, spoken in Nondalton, Lime Village
Tzeltal or Tseltal is a Mayan language spoken in the Mexican state of Chiapas, mostly in the municipalities of Ocosingo, Altamirano, Huixtán, Tenejapa, Yajalón, Chanal, Sitalá, Amatenango del Valle, Socoltenango, Las Rosas, Chilón, San Juan Cancuc, San Cristóbal de las Casas and Oxchuc. Tzeltal is one of many Mayan languages spoken near this eastern region of Chiapas, including Tzotzil, Chʼol, and Tojolabʼal, among others. There is also a small Tzeltal diaspora in other parts of Mexico and the United States, primarily as a result of unfavorable economic conditions in Chiapas.
Wiyot or Soulatluk is an Algic language spoken by the Wiyot people of Humboldt Bay, California. The language's last native speaker, Della Prince, died in 1962.
The Ojibwe language is an Algonquian North American indigenous language spoken throughout the Great Lakes region and westward onto the northern plains. It is one of the largest indigenous language north of Mexico in terms of number of speakers, and exhibits a large number of divergent dialects. For the most part, this article describes the Minnesota variety of the Southwestern dialect. The orthography used is the Fiero Double-Vowel System.
The Sadz or Asadzwa, also Jigets, are a subethnic group of the Abkhazians. They are sometimes purported to have originated from the Sanigoi tribe mentioned by the Classic authors. In the 6th century, they formed a tribal principality, which later commingled with the Abasgoi, Apsilae and Missimianoi into the Kingdom of Abkhazia.
Tiipai (Tipay) is a Native American language belonging to the Delta–California branch of the Yuman language family, which spans Arizona, California, and Baja California. As part of the Yuman family, Tiipai has also been consistently included in the controversial quasi-stock Hokan. Tiipai is spoken by a number of Kumeyaay tribes in northern Baja California and southern San Diego County, California. There were, conservatively, 200 Tiipai speakers in the early 1990s; the number of speakers has since declined steadily, numbering roughly 100 speakers in Baja California in a 2007 survey.
The Tati language is a Northwestern Iranian language spoken by the Tat people of Iran which is closely related to other languages such as Talysh, Zaza, Mazandarani and Gilaki.
Abkhaz is a language of the Northwest Caucasian family which, like the other Northwest Caucasian languages, is very rich in consonants. Abkhaz has a large consonantal inventory that contrasts 58 consonants in the literary Abzhywa dialect, coupled with just two phonemic vowels.
This article presents a brief overview of the grammar of the Sesotho and provides links to more detailed articles.
Mohegan-Pequot is an Algonquian language formerly spoken by indigenous peoples in southern present-day New England and eastern Long Island.
Pashto is an S-O-V language with split ergativity. Adjectives come before nouns. Nouns and adjectives are inflected for gender (masc./fem.), number (sing./plur.), and case. The verb system is very intricate with the following tenses: Present; simple past; past progressive; present perfect; and past perfect. In any of the past tenses, Pashto is an ergative language; i.e., transitive verbs in any of the past tenses agree with the object of the sentence. The dialects show some non-standard grammatical features, some of which are archaisms or descendants of old forms.
Cahuilla, or Ivilyuat, is an endangered Uto-Aztecan language, spoken by the various tribes of the Cahuilla Nation, living in the Coachella Valley, San Gorgonio Pass and San Jacinto Mountains region of southern California. The Cahuilla demonyms include Ɂívil̃uwenetem or Iviatam–speakers of Ivilyuat (Iviɂa)–or táxliswet meaning "person." A 1990 census revealed 35 speakers in an ethnic population of 800. With such a decline, Ivilyuat is classified as "critically endangered" by the UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger as most speakers are middle-aged or older with limited transmission rates to children.
Mungbam is a Southern Bantoid language of the Lower Fungom region of Cameroon. It is traditionally classified as a Western Beboid language, but the language family is disputed. Good et al. uses a more accurate name, the 'Yemne-Kimbi group,' but proposes the term 'Beboid.'
Wayana is a language of the Cariban family, spoken by the Wayana people, who live mostly in the borderlands of French Guiana, Brazil, and Suriname.
↑ Gippert, Jost (1992). "The Caucasian Language Material in Evliya Çelebi's 'Travel Book'". In Hewitt, George (ed.). Caucasian Perspectives. München: Lincom. p.9. ISBN978-3-929075-01-4.
↑ Mayor, Adrienne; Colarusso, John; Saunders, David (2014). "Making Sense of Nonsense Inscriptions Associated with Amazons and Scythians on Athenian Vases". Hesperia: The Journal of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens. 83 (3): 447–493. doi:10.2972/hesperia.83.3.0447. S2CID8068881.
↑ Kassian, Alexei (December 2016). "Un-Making Sense of Alleged Abkhaz-Adyghean Inscriptions on Ancient Greek Pottery". Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia. 22 (2): 177–198. doi:10.1163/15700577-12341301.
↑ Hewitt, George (2008). "Cases, arguments, verbs in Abkhaz, Georgian and Mingrelian." Case and Grammatical Relations: Studies in Honor of Bernard Comrie, edited by Greville G. Corbett and Michael Noonan, Philadelphia: John Benjamins, p.80
↑ Hewitt, George (1999). "Morphology Revisited: Some Peculiarities of the Abkhaz Verb." Studies in Caucasian Linguistics edited by Helma van den Berg, Leiden: CNWS, p.197
Hewitt, B. George (2010). Abkhaz: A Comprehensive Self-Tutor. München: Lincom Europa. ISBN978-3-89586-670-8.
Hewitt, B. George (1979). Abkhaz: A Descriptive Grammar. Amsterdam: North Holland.
Hewitt, B. George (1989). "Abkhaz". In Greppin, John (ed.). The Indigenous Languages of the Caucasus. Vol.2. New York: Caravan Books. pp.39–88.
Hewitt, B. George (2008). "Cases, arguments, verbs in Abkhaz, Georgian and Mingrelian". In Corbett, Greville G.; Noonan, Michael (eds.). Case and Grammatical Relations: Studies in Honor of Bernard Comrie. Philadelphia: John Benjamins. pp.75–104.
Hewitt, B. George (1999). "Morphology Revisited: Some Peculiarities of the Abkhaz Verb". In van den Berg, Helma (ed.). Studies in Caucasian Linguistics. Leiden: CNWS. pp.197–208.
Hewitt, B. George (1979). "The Relative Clause in Abkhaz (Abžui Dialect)". Lingua. 47 (2–3): 151–188. doi:10.1016/0024-3841(79)90034-2.
Vaux, Bert; Psiypa, Zihni (1997). "The Cwyzhy Dialect of Abkhaz". In Kuno, Susumu; Vaux, Bert; Peter, Steve (eds.). Harvard Working Papers in Linguistics. Vol.6. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Linguistics Department.
Andersson, Samuel; Vaux, Bert; Pysipa (Şener), Zihni (2021). "Cwyzhy Abkhaz". Illustrations of the IPA. Journal of the International Phonetic Association: 1–21. doi:10.1017/S0025100320000390.
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