Iranian languages

This article is about the language family. For languages spoken in the modern country of Iran, see Languages of Iran. For the official language of Iran, see Persian language.

Iranian
Iranic
Geographic distribution	West Asia, Eastern Europe, Caucasus, Central Asia, and South Asia
Ethnicity	Iranian peoples
Linguistic classification	Indo-European Indo-Iranian Iranian
Proto-language	Proto-Iranian
Subdivisions	Western Avestan † Eastern
Language codes
ISO 639-2 / 5	ira
Linguasphere	58= (phylozone)
Glottolog	iran1269
Distribution of the Iranian languages in and around the Iranian plateau

The Iranian languages, also called the Iranic languages, ^{[1] [2]} are a branch of the Indo-Iranian languages in the Indo-European language family that are spoken natively by the Iranian peoples, predominantly in the Iranian Plateau.

The Iranian languages are grouped in three stages: Old Iranian (until 400 BCE), Middle Iranian (400 BCE – 900 CE) and New Iranian (since 900 CE). The two directly-attested Old Iranian languages are Old Persian (from the Achaemenid Empire) and Old Avestan (the language of the Avesta). Of the Middle Iranian languages, the better understood and recorded ones are Middle Persian (from the Sasanian Empire), Parthian (from the Parthian Empire), and Bactrian (from the Kushan and Hephthalite empires).

Number of speakers

As of 2000s ^[update] , Ethnologue estimates that there are 86 languages in the group. ^{[3] [4]}

Top languages by number of native speakers

Name	speakers
Persian	84 million
Pashto	50 million
Kurdish	35 million
Balochi	15 million
Caspian	10 million
Tajik	8 million
Luri	5 million
150–200 million [5]

Terminology and grouping

Etymology

The term Iran derives directly from Middle Persian Ērān, first attested in a third-century inscription at Naqsh-e Rostam, with the accompanying Parthian inscription using the term Aryān, in reference to the Iranian peoples. ^[6] The Middle-Iranian ērān and aryān are oblique plural forms of gentilic nouns ēr- (Middle Persian) and ary- (Parthian), both deriving from Proto-Iranian language *arya- (meaning "Aryan", i.e. "of the Iranians"), ^{[6] [7]} recognized as a derivative of Proto-Indo-European language *ar-yo-, meaning "one who assembles (skilfully)". ^[8] In the Iranic languages spoken on the plateau, the gentilic is attested as a self-identifier, included in ancient inscriptions and the literature of the Avesta, ^{[9] [note 1]} and remains also in other Iranian ethnic names Alan (Ossetian : ИрIr) and Iron (Ирон). ^[7]

Iranian vs. Iranic

When used as a linguistic term Iranian is applied to any language which descends from the ancestral Proto-Iranian language. ^[10]

Some scholars such as John R. Perry prefer the term Iranic as the anthropological name for the linguistic family and ethnic groups of this category, and Iranian for anything about the modern country of Iran. He uses the same analogue as in differentiating German from Germanic or differentiating Turkish and Turkic. ^[11]

This use of the term for the Iranian language family was introduced in 1836 by Christian Lassen. ^[12] Robert Needham Cust used the term Irano-Aryan in 1878, ^[13] and Orientalists such as George Abraham Grierson and Max Müller contrasted Irano-Aryan (Iranian) and Indo-Aryan (Indic ^{[note 2]} ). Some recent scholarship, primarily in German, has revived this convention. ^{[14] [15] [16] [17]}

Grouping

The Iranian languages are divided into the following branches:

• The Western Iranian languages, subdivided into:
  • Southwestern, of which Persian (including the Dari and Tajik dialects) and Luri are the dominant members;
  • Northwestern, of which the Kurdish languages are the dominant members.
• The Eastern Iranian languages, subdivided into:
  • Southeastern, of which Pashto is the dominant member;
  • Northeastern, by far the smallest branch, of which Ossetian is the dominant member.

According to modern scholarship, the Avestan languages are not considered to fall under these categories, and are instead sometimes classified as Central Iranian, since they diverged from Proto-Iranian before the east-west division rose to prominence. It has traditionally been viewed as Eastern Iranian; however, it lacks a large number of Eastern Iranian features and thus is only "Eastern Iranian" in the sense that it is not Western. ^[18]

Proto-Iranian

Distribution of Iranic peoples in Central Asia during the Iron Age period.

The Iranian languages all descend from a common ancestor: Proto-Iranian, which itself evolved from Proto-Indo-Iranian. This ancestor language is speculated to have origins in Central Asia, and the Andronovo culture of the Bronze Age is suggested as a candidate for the common Indo-Iranian culture around 2000 BCE.^{[ citation needed ]}

The language was situated precisely in the western part of Central Asia that borders present-day Russia and Kazakhstan. It was thus in relative proximity to the other satem ethno-linguistic groups of the Indo-European family, such as Thracian, Balto-Slavic and others, and to common Indo-European's original homeland (more precisely, the Pontic-Caspian Steppe to the north of the Black Sea and the Caucasus), according to the reconstructed linguistic relationships of common Indo-European.

Proto-Iranian thus dates to some time after the Proto-Indo-Iranian breakup, or the early-2nd millennium BCE, as the Old Iranian languages began to break off and evolve separately as the various Iranian tribes migrated and settled in vast areas of southeastern Europe, the Iranian Plateau, and Central Asia.

Proto-Iranian innovations compared to Proto-Indo-Iranian include: ^[19] the turning of sibilant fricative *s into non-sibilant fricative glottal *h; the voiced aspirated plosives *bʰ, *dʰ, *gʰ yielding to the voiced unaspirated plosives *b, *d, *g resp.; the voiceless unaspirated stops *p, *t, *k before another consonant changing into fricatives *f, *θ, *x resp.; voiceless aspirated stops *pʰ, *tʰ, *kʰ turning into fricatives *f, *θ, *x, resp.

Old Iranian

The multitude of Middle Iranian languages and peoples indicate that great linguistic diversity must have existed among the ancient speakers of Iranian languages. Of that variety of languages/dialects, direct evidence of only two has survived. These are:

• Avestan, the two languages/dialects of the Avesta (the liturgical texts of Zoroastrianism).
• Old Persian, the native language of a southwestern Iranian people known as Persians. ^[20]

Indirectly attested Old Iranian languages are discussed below.

Old Persian was an Old Iranian dialect as it was spoken in southwestern Iran (the modern-day province of Fars) by the inhabitants of Parsa, Persia, or Persis who also gave their name to their region and language. Genuine Old Persian is best attested in one of the three languages of the Behistun inscription, composed c. 520 BCE, and which is the last inscription (and only inscription of significant length) in which Old Persian is still grammatically correct. Later inscriptions are comparatively brief, and typically simply copies of words and phrases from earlier ones, often with grammatical errors, which suggests that by the 4th century BCE the transition from Old Persian to Middle Persian was already far advanced, but efforts were still being made to retain an "old" quality for official proclamations.

The other directly attested Old Iranian dialects are the two forms of Avestan, which take their name from their use in the Avesta, the liturgical texts of indigenous Iranian religion that now goes by the name of Zoroastrianism but in the Avesta itself is simply known as vohu daena (later: behdin). The language of the Avesta is subdivided into two dialects, conventionally known as "Old (or 'Gathic') Avestan", and "Younger Avestan". These terms, which date to the 19th century, are slightly misleading since 'Younger Avestan' is not only much younger than 'Old Avestan', but also from a different geographic region. The Old Avestan dialect is very archaic, and at roughly the same stage of development as Rigvedic Sanskrit. On the other hand, Younger Avestan is at about the same linguistic stage as Old Persian, but by virtue of its use as a sacred language retained its "old" characteristics long after the Old Iranian languages had yielded to their Middle Iranian stage. Unlike Old Persian, which has Middle Persian as its known successor, Avestan has no clearly identifiable Middle Iranian stage (the effect of Middle Iranian is indistinguishable from effects due to other causes).

In addition to Old Persian and Avestan, which are the only directly attested Old Iranian languages, all Middle Iranian languages must have had a predecessor "Old Iranian" form of that language, and thus can all be said to have had an (at least hypothetical) "Old" form. Such hypothetical Old Iranian languages include Old Parthian. Additionally, the existence of unattested languages can sometimes be inferred from the impact they had on neighbouring languages. Such transfer is known to have occurred for Old Persian, which has (what is called) a "Median" substrate in some of its vocabulary. ^[21] Also, foreign references to languages can also provide a hint to the existence of otherwise unattested languages, for example through toponyms/ethnonyms or in the recording of vocabulary, as Herodotus did for what he called "Scythian" and in one instance, Median (σπάκα "dog").

Isoglosses

Conventionally, Iranian languages are grouped into "western" and "eastern" branches. ^[22] These terms have little meaning with respect to Old Avestan as that stage of the language may predate the settling of the Iranian peoples into western and eastern groups. The geographic terms also have little meaning when applied to Younger Avestan since it is not known where that dialect (or dialects) was spoken either. Certain is only that Avestan (all forms) and Old Persian are distinct, and since Old Persian is "western", and Avestan was not Old Persian, Avestan acquired a default assignment to "eastern". Further confusing the issue is the introduction of a western Iranian substrate in later Avestan compositions and redactions undertaken at the centers of imperial power in western Iran (either in the south-west in Persia, or in the north-west in Nisa/Parthia and Ecbatana/Media).

Two of the earliest dialectal divisions among Iranian indeed happen to not follow the later division into Western and Eastern blocks. These concern the fate of the Proto-Indo-Iranian first-series palatal consonants, *ć and *dź: ^[23]

• Avestan and most other Iranian languages have deaffricated and depalatalized these consonants, and have *ć > s, *dź > z.
• Old Persian, however, has fronted these consonants further: *ć > θ, *dź > *ð > d.

As a common intermediate stage, it is possible to reconstruct depalatalized affricates: *c, *dz. (This coincides with the state of affairs in the neighboring Nuristani languages.) A further complication however concerns the consonant clusters *ćw and *dźw:

• Avestan and most other Iranian languages have shifted these clusters to sp, zb.
• In Old Persian, these clusters yield s, z, with loss of the glide *w, but without further fronting.
• The Saka language, attested in the Middle Iranian period, and its modern relative Wakhi fail to fit into either group: in these, palatalization remains, and similar glide loss as in Old Persian occurs: *ćw > š, *dźw > ž.

A division of Iranian languages in at least three groups during the Old Iranian period is thus implied:

• Persid (Old Persian and its descendants)
• Sakan (Saka, Wakhi, and their Old Iranian ancestor)
• Central Iranian (all other Iranian languages)

It is possible that other distinct dialect groups were already in existence during this period. Good candidates are the hypothetical ancestor languages of Alanian/Scytho-Sarmatian subgroup of Scythian in the far northwest; and the hypothetical "Old Parthian" (the Old Iranian ancestor of Parthian) in the near northwest, where original *dw > *b (paralleling the development of *ćw).

Middle Iranian

What is known in Iranian linguistic history as the "Middle Iranian" era is thought to begin around the 4th century BCE lasting through the 9th century. Linguistically the Middle Iranian languages are conventionally classified into two main groups, Western and Eastern.

The Western family includes Parthian (Arsacid Pahlavi) and Middle Persian, while Bactrian, Sogdian, Khwarezmian, Saka, and Old Ossetic (Scytho-Sarmatian) fall under the Eastern category. The two languages of the Western group were linguistically very close to each other, but quite distinct from their eastern counterparts. On the other hand, the Eastern group was an areal entity whose languages retained some similarity to Avestan. They were inscribed in various Aramaic-derived alphabets which had ultimately evolved from the Achaemenid Imperial Aramaic script, though Bactrian was written using an adapted Greek script.

Middle Persian (Pahlavi) was the official language under the Sasanian dynasty in Iran. It was in use from the 3rd century CE until the beginning of the 10th century. The script used for Middle Persian in this era underwent significant maturity. Middle Persian, Parthian, and Sogdian were also used as literary languages by the Manichaeans, whose texts also survive in various non-Iranian languages, from Latin to Chinese. Manichaean texts were written in a script closely akin to the Syriac script. ^[24]

New Iranian

See also: Persian literature, Pashto literature, Ossetian literature, Kurdish literature, and Tajik literature

Dark green: countries where Iranian languages are official.
Teal: countries where Iranian languages are official in a subdivision.

Following the Arab conquest of Persia, there were important changes in the role of the different dialects within the Persian Empire. The old prestige form of Middle Iranian, also known as Pahlavi, was replaced by a new standard dialect called Dari as the official language of the court. The name Dari comes from the word darbâr (دربار), which refers to the royal court, where many of the poets, protagonists and patrons of the literature flourished. The Saffarid dynasty in particular was the first in a line of many dynasties to officially adopt the new language in 875 CE. Dari may have been heavily influenced by regional dialects of eastern Iran, whereas the earlier Pahlavi standard was based more on western dialects. This new prestige dialect became the basis of Standard New Persian. Medieval Iranian scholars such as Abdullah ibn al-Muqaffa (8th century) and Ibn al-Nadim (10th century) associated the term "Dari" with the eastern province of Khorasan, while they used the term "Pahlavi" to describe the dialects of the northwestern areas between Isfahan and Azerbaijan, and "Pârsi" ("Persian" proper) to describe the dialects of Fars (Persia). They also noted that the unofficial language of the royalty itself was yet another dialect, "Khuzi", associated with the western province of Khuzestan.

The Islamic conquest also brought with it the adoption of the Arabic script for writing Persian and much later, Kurdish, Pashto and Balochi. All three were adapted to the writing by the addition of a few letters. This development probably occurred sometime during the second half of the 8th century, when the old middle Persian script began dwindling in usage. The Arabic script remains in use in contemporary modern Persian. Tajik script, used to write the Tajik language, was first Latinised in the 1920s under the then-Soviet nationality policy. The script was however subsequently Cyrillicized in the 1930s by the Soviet government.

The geographical regions in which Iranian languages were spoken were pushed back in several areas by newly neighbouring languages. Arabic spread into some parts of Western Iran (Khuzestan), and Turkic languages spread through much of Central Asia, displacing various Iranian languages such as Sogdian and Bactrian in parts of what is today Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan. In Eastern Europe, mostly comprising the territory of modern-day Ukraine, southern European Russia, and parts of the Balkans, the core region of the native Scythians, Sarmatians, and Alans had been decisively taken over as a result of absorption and assimilation (e.g. Slavicisation) by the various Proto-Slavic population of the region, by the 6th century CE. ^{[25] [26] [27] [28]} This resulted in the displacement and extinction of the once predominant Scythian languages of the region. Sogdian's close relative Yaghnobi barely survives in a small area of the Zarafshan valley east of Samarkand, and Saka as Ossetic in the Caucasus, which is the sole remnant of the once predominant Scythian languages in Eastern Europe proper and large parts of the North Caucasus. Various small Iranian languages in the Pamir Mountains survive that are derived from Eastern Iranian.

Comparison table

English	Zaza	Sorani Kurdish	Kurmanji Kurdish	Pashto	Tati	Talyshi	Balochi	Gilaki	Mazanderani (Tabari)	Tat	Luri	Shugni	Persian	Middle Persian	Parthian	Old Persian	Avestan	Ossetian
beautiful	rınd, xasek	ciwan, nayab	rind, delal, bedew, xweşik	x̌kūlay, x̌āista	xojir	ghašang	dorr, soherâ, mah rang, sharr, juwān	xujīrçī/xujīr	xoşgel, xojir	qəşəng, şihid	qəşaŋ, xoşgel	xushrui, xagh(fem.) xigh(masc.)	zibā/xuš-čehr(e)/xoşgel(ak)/ghashanq/najib	hučihr, hužihr	hužihr	naiba	xvaini, sraiia, srao-	ræsughd
blood	goni	xwên	xwîn, xûn	wīna	xevn	xun	hon	Xun	xun	xun	xī(n)	xun	xūn	xōn	gōxan		vohuna, vaŋhutāt̰	tug
bread	nan, non	nan	nan	ḍoḍəi, məṛəi	nun	nun	nān, nagan	nön	nun	nun	nu(n)	gartha	nān	nān	nān		tāiiūiri, drao-naŋh (scared bread)	dzul
bring	ardene	/anîn, hawerdin, hênan	anîn	(rā)wṛəl	vârden, biyordon	varde	âurten, yārag, ārag	hävərdən, härdən, ävərdən, bərdən	biyârden	avardən	o(v)erden,	videu	āwurdan, biyār ("(you) bring!")	āwurdan, āwāy-, āwar-, bar-	āwāy-, āwar-, bar-	bara-	bara, bar-	xæssyn
brother	bıra	bira	bira	wror	bərâr	bira, boli	brāt, brās	bərär, bərâr	birâr	birar	Gaghe	værod	barādar	brād, brâdar	brād, brādar	brātar	brātar-	æfsymær
come	ameyene	hatin, were, bew (Pehlewanî)	hatin, were,	rā tləl	biyâmiyan	ome	āhag, āyag, hatin	həmän, ämön, hömän	biyamona, enen, biyâmuen	amarən	umae(n)	yà	āmadan	āmadan, awar	awar, čām	āy-, āgam	āgam-	cæwyn
cry	bermayene	giryan, girîn, gîristin (Pehlewanî)	girîn	žəṛəl	bərma	berame, bame	greewag, grehten	burmə	birme	girəstən	gerevesen, gereva	náu	gerīstan/gerīye	griy-, bram-	barmâdan		snuδ,	kæwyn
dark	tari	tarî/tarîk	tarî	skəṇ, skaṇ, tyara	ul, gur, târica, târek	toki	tār	zuləmât, tärik	tār, siyo, zolamât	tariki	tārīk	torice	tārīk, tār	tārīg/k	tārīg, tārēn	tārīk	sāmahe, sāma	tar
daughter	keyne, çêne/çêneke	kîj, kiç, kenîşk, düêt (Pehlewanî), dwêt (Pehlewanî)	dot, keç	lūr	titiye, dətar	kinə, kila	dohtir, duttag	lâku, kör, kijâ (girl) dətər (daughter)	kîjâ(girl), deter (daughter)	duxtər	doxter	rezin	doxtar	duxtar	duxt, duxtar		duxδar	čyzg ( Iron ), kizgæ ( Digor )
day	roce, roje, roze	řoj, rûj (Pehlewanî)	roj	wrəd͡z (rwəd͡z)	revj, ruz	ruj	roç	ruz, ruj	ruz, ruj	ruz	ru	ruz	rūz	rōz		raucah-	raocah-	bon
do	kerdene	kirdin	kirin	kawəl	kardan, kordan	karde	kanag, kurtin	gudən, kudən, kördən	hâkerden, hâkorden	saxtən	kerde	chideu	kardan	kardan	kartan	kạrta-	kәrәta-	kænyn
door	ber, keyber, çêber	derge/derke, derga, qapî (Kelhorî)	derî	wər, dərwāza	darvâca	bə	dar, gelo, darwāzag	bər	dar, loş	dər	dər, dar	dêve	dar	dar	dar, bar	duvara-	dvara-	dwar
die	merdene	mirdin	mirin	mrəl	bamarden	marde	mireg, murten	murdən, mərdən	bamerden	mürdən	morde	mideu	mordan	murdan		mạriya-	mar-	mælyn
donkey	her	ker, gwêdirêj, xer (Pehlewanî)	ker	xər	astar, xar	hə, hər	har, her, kar	xər	xar	xər	xər	marcabe	xar	xar			kaθβa	xæræg
eat	werdene	xwardin	xwarin	xwāṛə, xurāk / xwaṛəl	harden	harde	warag, warâk, wārten	xördən, xöndən	xerâk / baxârden	xardən	harde	xideu	xordan / xurāk	parwarz / xwâr, xwardīg	parwarz / xwâr		hareθra / CE-, at-	xærinag
egg	hak, akk	hêk/hêlke, tum, xaye (Pehlewanî), xa (Kelhorî)	hêk	hagəi	merqâna, karxâ	morqana, uyə	heyg, heyk, ā morg	murqönə, murqänə	merqâne, tîm, balî	xaykərg	xā'a	tarmurx	toxm, xāya ("testicle")	toxmag, xâyag	taoxmag, xâyag		taoxma-	ajk
earth	erd	zemîn, zewî, ʿerz, erd	erd, zevî	d͡zməka (md͡zəka)	zemin	zamin	zemin, degār	zəmi, gəl, bunə	zamîn, bene	xari	zemi	zimath	zamīn	zamīg	zamīg	zam-	zãm, zam, zem	zæxx
evening	şan	êware, îware (Pehlewanî)	êvar, şev	māx̌ām (māš̥ām)	nomâzyar, nomâšon	shav	begáh	şänsər	nemâşun	şangum	evāra	véga	begáh	ēvārag	êbêrag		arəzaŋh	izær
eye	çım	çaw/çaş	çav	stərga	coš	čaş,gelgan	cham, chem	çum	çəş, bəj	çüm	tīya, çaş	çem	čashm	čašm	čašm	čaša-	čašman-	cæst
father	pi, pêr	bawk, bab, babe, bawg (Pehlewanî)	bav, bab	plār	piyar, piya, dada	piya, lala, po	pet, pes	pér	pîyer, pîyar, per	piyər	bua	tat	pedar, bābā	pidar	pid	pitar	pitar	fyd
fear	ters	tirs	tirs	wēra (yara), bēra	târs	tars	turs, terseg	tərs	taşe-vaşe, tars	tərsi	ters	hoge	tars, harās	tars	tars	tạrsa-	tares-	tas
fiancé	waşti	desgîran,xwşavest	dergistî	čənghol [masculine], čənghəla [feminine]	numzâ	nomja	nāmzād	nömzət	numze	nükürdə		xîsmenz	nāmzād	–	–		para-dāta (affianced)	usag
fine	weş, hewl	xoş	xweş	x̌a (š̥a), səm	xojir, xar	xoş	wash, hosh	xujīr, xurum	xâr, xeş, xojir	xuş, xas, xub	xu	bashand	xoš, xūb, beh	dārmag			srīra	xorz, dzæbæx
finger	engışte/gışte, bêçıke	engust, pence,angus, pênce	tilî, pêçî	gwəta	anquš	anqiştə	changol, mordâneg, lenkutk	ənguşt, əngüşt	angus	əngüşt	kelek	angiht	angošt	angust			aṇgušta	ængwyldz
fire	adır	agir/awir, ahir,ayer	agir	wōr (ōr)	taš	otaş	âch, atesh, âs	təş	taş	ataş	taş, gor	yoç	ātaš, āzar	âdur, âtaxsh	ādur	âç-	ātre-/aēsma-	art
fish	mase	masî	masî	māyai	mâyi	moy	māhi, māhig	mäyi	mâhî	mahi	māhi	moie	māhi	māhig	māsyāg		masya	kæsag
go	şiayene	çûn, řoştin, řoyiştin, çün (Pehlewanî)	çûn	tləl	šiyen, bišiyan	şe	shoten	şön	şunen / burden	raftən	ro	sà, tideu	ro/şo	şow/row	ay-	ai-	ay-, fra-vaz	cæwyn
God	Homa/Huma/Oma	Yezdan, Xwedê, Xuda, Xodê, Xwa(y)	Xwedê, Xweda, Xudê	Xwədāi	Xədâ	Xıdo	Xoda, Hwdâ	Xuda	Xedâ	Xuda	xodā	Xuthoi	Xodā, Izad, Yazdān, Baq	Xudā/Yazdān		baga-	baya-	xwycaw
good	hewl, rınd, weş	baş, çak, xas	baş, rind	x̌ə (š̥ə)	xâr, xojir	çok	zabr, sharr, jowain	xujīr, xurum	xâr, xeş, xojir	xub, xas	xu	bashand	xub, nīkū, beh	xūb, nêkog, beh		vahu-	vohu, vaŋhu-	xorz
grass	vaş	giya/gya	giya, çêre	wāx̌ə (wāš̥ə)	vâš	alaf	rem, sabzag	vâş	vâş	güyo	sozi, çame	woh	sabzeh, giyāh	giyâ	giya	viş	urvarā	kærdæg
great	gırd/gırs, pil	gewre,mezin	mezin, gir	lōy, stər	pilla	yol, yal, vaz, dıjd	mastar, mazan,tuh	pilâ, pillə, pille, gət	gat, pilla	kələ	gap	wazmin	bozorg	wuzurg, pīl, yal		vazraka-	mazaṇt̰, masita, stūi	styr
hand	dest	dest, des	dest	lās	bâl	dast	dast	dəs, bâl	das, bāl	dəs	das	thust	dast	dast	dast	dasta-	zasta-	k'ux / arm
head	ser	ser	ser	sər	kalla	sə, sər	sar, sarag, saghar	kəlle, sər	kalle, sar	sər	sar	cile, cale	sar	sar		kalli	sairi	sær
heart	zerri/zerre	dil/dił/dir(Erbil)/zil	dil	zṛə	dəl	dıl	dil, hatyr	dīl, dəl, qlf	del, zel, zil	dül	del	dile, zorth	del	dil	dil		zaraŋh, zarəδiia, aηhuš	zærdæ
horse	estor/ostor/astor	asp/hesp/esp, hês(t)ir	hesp	ās [male], aspa [female]	asb, astar	asp	asp	əsb, əsp	asp, as	əs	asb	vorge	asb	asp, stōr	asp, stōr	aspa	aspa-	bæx
house	key/çê	mał, xanû, xanig, ghat	xanî, mal	kor	kiya	ka	ges, dawâr, log	sərə, xöne	sere, kime, xene	xunə	huna	chide	xāne	xânag			demāna-, nmāna-	xædzar
hungry	vêşan/veyşan	birsî, wirsî (Pehlewanî)	birçî, birsî (behdînî)	lweǵai (lweẓ̌ai)	vašnâ, vešir, gesnâ	vahşian	shudig, shud	vəşnä, viştâ	veşnâ, veşnâsâr	gisnə	gosna	maghzönch	gorosne, goşne	gursag, shuy	veşnâg		ṣ̌uδ
language (also tongue)	zıwan, zon, zuan, zuon, juan, jüan	ziman, zuwan	ziman	žəba	zobun, zəvân	zivon	zewān, zobān	zəvön, zuvön, zuvän	zivun, zebun, tok	zuhun	zevu	zive	zabān	zuwān	izβān	hazâna-	hizvā-, zafana (mouth)	ævzag
laugh	huyayene	kenîn/pêkenîn, kenîn,xende,xene	kenîn	xandəl/xənda	xurəsen, xandastan	sıre	hendag, xandag	purxə, xənde/ xəndəsən	rîk, baxendesten, xanne	xəndə	xana	shinteu	xande	xande, xand		karta	Syaoθnāvareza-	xudyn
life	cuye, weşiye	jiyan, jîn	jiyan	žwəndūn, žwənd	zindәgi	jimon	zendegih, zind	zīndəgī, zīvəş	zindegî, jan	həyat	zeŋei	zindage, umre	zendegi, jan	zīndagīh, zīwišnīh	žīwahr, žīw-		gaēm, gaya-	card
man	mêrdek, camêrd/cüamêrd	mêrd, pîyaw, cuwamêr	mêr, camêr	səṛay, mēṛə	mardak, miarda	merd	merd	mərd, mərdönə	mardî	mərd	piyā	chorice, mardina	mard	mard	mard	martiya-	mašīm, mašya	adæjmag
moon	aşme, menge (for month)	mang, heyv	meh, heyv	spūǵməi (spōẓ̌məi)	mâng	mang, owşum	máh	mâng, məng	ma, munek, mong, rojâ	ma	māh	mêst	mâh, mâng, mânk	māh	māh	mâh-	måŋha-	mæj
mother	may, mar	dayik, dayig	dayik, dê	mōr	mâr, mâya, nana	moa, ma, ina	mât, mâs	mâr, mär	mâr, nenâ	may	dā(ya), dāle(ka)	nan	mâdar	mâdar	dayek	mâtar	mātar-	mad
mouth	fek	dem	dev	xūla (xʷəla)	duxun, dâ:ân	gəv	dap	dəhən	dâhun, lâmîze, loşe	duhun	dam	gêve	dahân	dahân, rumb			zafan, zafarə, åŋhānō, åñh	dzyx
name	name	naw, nêw	nav	nūm	num	nom	nâm	nöm	num	num	num	nöme	nâm	nâm		nâman	nãman	nom
night	şew	şew	şev	špa	šö, šav	şav	šap, shaw	şö, şöv, şəb	şow, şu	şöü	şo	hab	shab	shab		xšap-	xšap-, naxti	æxsæv
open (v)	akerdene	kirdinewe, wazkirdin (Kelhorî)	vekirin	prānistəl	vâz-kardan	okarde	pāch, pabozag	vlätən, väzän, vâ-gudən	vâ-hekârden	vakardən	vākerde(n)	ët chideu	bâz-kardan, va-kardan	abâz-kardan, višādag		būxtaka-	būxta-	gom kænyn
peace	haşti/aşti	aştî, aramî	aştî, aramî	rōɣa, t͡sōkāləi	dinj	aşiş	ârâm	əşt	âştî, esket	salaməti, dinci	āş(t)i	salöm	âshti, ârâmeš, ârâmî, sâzish	âštih, râmīšn	râm, râmīšn	šiyâti-	rāma-	fidyddzinad
pig	xoz/xonz, xınzır	beraz,goraz	beraz	soḍər, xənd͡zir (Arabic), xug	xu, xuyi, xug	xug	khug, huk	xuk	xî	xug	xuk	xug	xūk	xūk			hū, varāza (boar)	xwy
place	ca	cê(cêga), ga, şwên, şwîn (Pehlewanî)	cih, geh	d͡zāi	yâga	vira	ja, jaygah, hend	jâ, jigâ, jigə	jâ, gâ, kolâ	cigə, cə	jā	joi	jâh/gâh	gâh	gâh	gâθu-	gātu-, gātav-	ran
read	wendene	xwendin/xwêndin, xwenistin	xwendin	lwastəl, kōtəl	baxânden	hande, xwande	wánag, wānten	xöndən, xönəsən	baxenden, baxundesten	xundən	vane(n)	heideu	xândan	xwândan			paiti-pǝrǝs	kæsyn
say	vatene	gutin, witin	gotin	wayəl	vâten, baguten	vote	gushag, guashten	gutən, guftən	baowten, boten, bagoten	guftirən, gaf saxtən	gute(n)	lövdeu	goftan, gap(-zadan)	guftan, gōw-, wâxtan	gōw-	gaub-	vac, mrū-	dzuryn
sister	waye	xweh, xweşk, xoşk, xuşk, xoyşk	xwîşk	xōr (xʷōr)	xâke, xâv, xâxor, xuâr	hova	gwhâr	xâxur, xâxər	xâxer, xâxor, xoar	xuvar	xuar	yàx, yàxbìç	xâhar/xwâhar	xwahar			xvaŋhar-	xo
small	qıc/qıyt, wırd/werdi	giçke, qicik, hûr, biçûk, büçik (Kelhorî)	biçûk, hûr, qicik	kūčnay, waṛ(ū)kay	qijel, ruk	hırd	gwand, hurd	kuçhī, kujī, kuştə	peçik, biçuk, xerd	küçük, küşkin, kişgələ, kəm	koçek	zulice	kuchak, kam, xurd, rîz	kam, rangas	kam	kamna-	kasu, kamna-	chysyl
son	lac, laj	law/kuř	kur, law, pis	d͡zoy (zoy)	pur, zâ	zoə, zurə	possag, baç	vəçə, rikə, pəsər, rəy	peser/rîkâ	kuk	kor	puç	pesar, pur	pur, pusar	puhr	puça	pūθra-	fyrt
soul	roh, gan	can, giyan, rewan, revan	reh, can	sā	rəvân	con	rawân	ruh, jön	ro, jân	can		jöne	ravân, jân	rūwân, jyân	rūwân, jyân		urvan-	ud
spring	wesar/usar	behar, wehar	bihar, behar	spərlay	vâ:âr	əvəsor, bahar	bārgāh	vəhâr, bâhâr	vehâr, behâr	vasal	behār, vehār	bahor	bahâr	wahâr		vâhara-	vaŋhar
tall	berz	bilind/berz	bilind/berz	lwəṛ, ǰəg	pilla	barz, bılınd	borz, bwrz	burz, bələnd	belen, belend	bülünd	beleŋ	beland	boland / bârz	buland, borz	bârež		bərəzaṇt̰	bærzond
ten	des	deh/de	deh	ləs	da	da	dah	dä	da, datâ	də	da	thiste	dah	dah		datha	dasa	dæs
three	hirê/hiri	sê	sê	drē	so, se	se, he	sey	su, sə	se, setâ	sə	se	arai	se	sê	hrē	çi-	θri-	ærtæ
village	dewe	gund, dêhat, dê, awayî	gund	kəlay	döh, da	di	dehāt, helk, kallag, dê	mällə, məhällə, kəläyə	dih, male, kolâ	di	de	qishloq	deh, wis	wiž	dahyu-	vîs-, dahyu-	vîs	qæw
want	waştene	xwastin, wîstin, twastin (Pehlewanî)	xwestin	ɣ(ʷ)ux̌təl	begovastan, jovastan	piye	loath, loteten	xäsən, xästən	bexâsten, bexâsti	xastən, vayistən	hāse	forteu	xâstan	xwâstan			ūna, ainišti	fændyn
water	awe/awk, owe, ou	aw	av	obə/ūbə	âv, ö	ov, wat(orandian dialect)	âp	ow, âv	ow, ou ,u	ou	ow	haç	âb	âb/aw	aw	âpi	avō-	don
when	key	key, kengî(Hewlêrî)	kengê, kîngê	kəla	key	keyna	kadi, ked	kén, kəy	ke, kemin, geder	key, çüvəxti	ke	çavaxt	key	kay	ka		cim-	kæd
wind	va	ba, wa (Pehlewanî)	ba	siləi	vâ	vo	gwáth	vâ	vâ	var	bād	huz	bâd	wâd	wa		vāta-	dymgæ / wad
wolf	verg	gurg,	gur	lewə, šarmux̌ (šarmuš̥)	varg	varg	gurk	vərg	verg, verk	gürg	gorg	urge/urj	gorg	gurg		varka-	vehrka	birægh
woman	cıni/ceni	jin, afret, zindage,gyian	jin	x̌əd͡za (š̥əd͡za)	zeyniye, zenak	jen, jiyan	jan, jinik	zən, zənək, zunönə	zenā	zən	zena	ghenice/ghinice, caxoi	zan	zan	žan		gǝnā, γnā, ǰaini-,	sylgojmag / us
year	serre	sal/sał	sal	kāl	sâl	sor, sal	sâl	sâl	sâl	sal	sāl	sol	sâl	sâl		θard	ýāre, sarәd	az
yes / no	ya, heya, ê / nê, ney, ni	bełê, a, erê / ne, nexêr	erê, belê, a / na	Hao, ao, wō / na, ya	ahan / na	ha / ne, na	ere, hān / na	əhâ/nä, nâ	are, ehe / nâ, no	həri, hə / nə	a, ā / na	ön / nai, nå	baleh, ârē, hā / na, née	ōhāy / ne	hâ / ney	yâ / nay, mâ	yā / noit, mā	o / næ
yesterday	vızêr	dwênê, dwêke	duho	parūn	azira, zira, diru	zir, zinə	zí	dîru	dîruz, aruz	deydi	diru	biyor	diruz	dêrûž		diya(ka)	zyō	znon
English	Zaza	Sorani	Kurmanji	Pashto	Tati	Talyshi	Balochi	Gilaki	Mazandarani	Tat	Luri	Shugni	Persian	Middle Persian	Parthian	Old Persian	Avestan	Ossetian

Notes

1. In the Avesta, the airiia- are members of the ethnic group of the Avesta-reciters themselves, in contradistinction to the anairiia- (the "non-Arya"). The word also appears four times in Old Persian: One is in the Behistun Inscription, where ariya- is the name of a language (DB 4.89). The other three instances occur in Darius the Great's inscription at Naqsh-e Rostam (DNa 14–15), in Darius I's inscription at Susa (DSe 13–14), and in the inscription of Xerxes I at Persepolis (XPh 12–13). In these, the two Achaemenid dynasties describe themselves as pārsa pārsahyā puça ariya ariyaciça "a Persian, son of a Persian, an Ariya, of Ariya origin."—The phrase with ciça ("origin, descendance") assures that ariya is an ethnic name wider in meaning than pārsa and not a simple adjectival epithet. ^[9]
2. In modern and colloquial context, the term "Indic" refers more generally to the languages of the Indian subcontinent, thus also including non-Aryan languages like Dravidian and Munda. See e.g. Reynolds, Mike; Verma, Mahendra (2007). "Indic languages". In Britain, David (ed.). Language in the British Isles. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 293–307. ISBN   978-0-521-79488-6 . Retrieved 2021-10-04.

References

1. Johannes Bechert; Giuliano Bernini; Claude Buridant (1990). Toward a Typology of European Languages. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN   978-3-11-012108-7.
2. Gernot Windfuhr (1979). Persian Grammar: History and State of Its Study. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN   978-90-279-7774-8.
3. "Ethnologue report for Iranian". Ethnologue.com.
4. Gordon, Raymond G. Jr., ed. (2005). "Report for Iranian languages". Ethnologue: Languages of the World (Fifteenth ed.). Dallas: SIL International.
5. Windfuhr, Gernot. The Iranian languages. Routledge Taylor and Francis Group.
6. MacKenzie, David Niel (1998). "Ērān, Ērānšahr". Encyclopedia Iranica. Vol. 8. Costa Mesa: Mazda. Archived from the original on 13 March 2017.
7. Schmitt, Rüdiger (1987), "Aryans", Encyclopedia Iranica, vol. 2, New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul, pp. 684–687
8. Laroche. 1957. Proto-Iranian *arya- descends from Proto-Indo-European (PIE) *ar-yo-, a yo-adjective to a root *ar "to assemble skillfully", present in Greek harma "chariot", Greek aristos, (as in "aristocracy"), Latin ars "art", etc.
9. Bailey, Harold Walter (1987). "Arya". Encyclopedia Iranica. Vol. 2. New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 681–683. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016.
10. ( Skjærvø 2006 )
11. John R. Perry (Summer–Autumn 1998). "A Review of the 'Encyclopaedia Iranica'". Iranian Studies. 31 (3/4): 517–525.
12. Lassen, Christian. 1936. Die altpersischen Keil-Inschriften von Persepolis. Entzifferung des Alphabets und Erklärung des Inhalts. Bonn: Weber. S. 182.
    This was followed by Wilhelm Geiger in his Grundriss der Iranischen Philologie (1895). Friedrich von Spiegel (1859), Avesta, Engelmann (p. vii) used the spelling Eranian.
13. Cust, Robert Needham. 1878. A sketch of the modern languages of the East Indies. London: Trübner.
14. Dani, Ahmad Hasan. 1989. History of northern areas of Pakistan. Historical studies (Pakistan) series. National Institute of Historical and Cultural Research.
    "We distinguish between the Aryan languages of Iran, or Irano-Aryan, and the Aryan languages of India, or Indo-Aryan. For the sake of brevity, Iranian is commonly used instead of Irano-Aryan".
15. Lazard, Gilbert. 1977. Preface in: Oranskij, Iosif M. Les langues iraniennes. Traduit par Joyce Blau.
16. Schmitt, Rüdiger. 1994. Sprachzeugnisse alt- und mitteliranischer Sprachen in Afghanistan in: Indogermanica et Caucasica. Festschrift für Karl Horst Schmidt zum 65. Geburtstag. Bielmeier, Robert und Reinhard Stempel (Hrg.). De Gruyter. S. 168–196.
17. Lazard, Gilbert. 1998. Actancy. Empirical approaches to language typology. Mouton de Gruyter. ISBN   3-11-015670-9, ISBN   978-3-11-015670-6
18. Encyclopaedia Iranica: EASTERN IRANIAN LANGUAGES. By Nicholas Sims-Williams
19. Michael Witzel (2001): Autochthonous Aryans? The evidence from Old Indian and Iranian texts. Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies 7(3): 1–115.
20. Roland G. Kent: "Old Persion: Grammar Texts Lexicon". Part I, Chapter I: The Linguistic Setting of Old Persian. American Oriental Society, 1953.
21. ( Skjærvø 2006 ) vi(2). Documentation.
22. Nicholas Sims-Williams, Iranica, under entry: Eastern Iranian languages
23. Windfuhr, Gernot (2009). "Dialectology and Topics". The Iranian Languages. Routledge. pp. 18–21.
24. Mary Boyce. 1975. A Reader in Manichaean Middle Persian and Parthian, p. 14.
25. Brzezinski, Richard; Mielczarek, Mariusz (2002). The Sarmatians, 600 BC-AD 450. Osprey Publishing. p. 39. (..) Indeed, it is now accepted that the Sarmatians merged in with pre-Slavic populations.
26. Adams, Douglas Q. (1997). Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture. Taylor & Francis. p. 523. (..) In their Ukrainian and Polish homeland the Slavs were intermixed and at times overlain by Germanic speakers (the Goths) and by Iranian speakers (Scythians, Sarmatians, Alans) in a shifting array of tribal and national configurations.
27. Atkinson, Dorothy; et al. (1977). Women in Russia. Stanford University Press. p.  3. ISBN   9780804709101. (..) Ancient accounts link the Amazons with the Scythians and the Sarmatians, who successively dominated the south of Russia for a millennium extending back to the seventh century B.C. The descendants of these peoples were absorbed by the Slavs who came to be known as Russians.
28. Slovene Studies. Vol. 9–11. Society for Slovene Studies. 1987. p. 36. (..) For example, the ancient Scythians, Sarmatians (amongst others), and many other attested but now extinct peoples were assimilated in the course of history by Proto-Slavs.

Bibliography

• Bailey, H. W. (1979). Dictionary of Khotan Saka. Cambridge University Press. 1979. 1st Paperback edition 2010. ISBN   978-0-521-14250-2.
• Schmitt, Rüdiger, ed. (1989). Compendium Linguarum Iranicarum (in German). Wiesbaden: Reichert. ISBN   978-3-88226-413-5.
• Sims-Williams, Nicholas (1996). "Iranian languages". Encyclopedia Iranica. Vol. 7. Costa Mesa: Mazda. pp. 238–245.
• Yarshater, Ehsan, ed. (1996). "Iran". Encyclopedia Iranica. Vol. 7. Costa Mesa: Mazda.
• Frye, Richard N. (1996). "Peoples of Iran". Encyclopedia Iranica. Vol. 7. Costa Mesa: Mazda.
• Windfuhr, Gernot L. (1995). "Cases in Iranian languages and dialects". Encyclopedia Iranica. Vol. 5. Costa Mesa: Mazda. pp. 25–37.
• Lazard, Gilbert (1996). "Dari". Encyclopedia Iranica. Vol. 7. Costa Mesa: Mazda.
• Henning, Walter B. (1954). "The Ancient language of Azarbaijan". Transactions of the Philological Society. 53 (1): 157–177. doi:10.1111/j.1467-968X.1954.tb00282.x.
• Rezakhani, Khodadad (2001). "The Iranian Language Family". Archived from the original on 2004-10-09.
• Skjærvø, Prods Oktor (2006). "Iran, vi. Iranian languages and scripts". Encyclopædia Iranica . Vol. 13.
• Delshad, Farshid (2010). Georgica et Irano-Semitica (PDF). Ars Poetica. Deutscher Wissenschaftsverlag DWV. ISBN   978-3-86888-004-5.
• Mallory, J. P.; Adams, Douglas Q. (2006). The Oxford introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Proto-Indo-European world. Oxford University Press. ISBN   978-0-19-929668-2.
• Toroghdar, Zia (2018). "From Astara to Fuman: Comparison words from dialects of different languages Talysh and Tatic". Farhang-e Ilia. pp. 38–172.

Further reading

• Sokolova, V. S. "New information on the phonetics of Iranic languages." Trudy Instituta jazykoznanija NN SSR (Moskva) 1 (1952): 178–192.
• Jügel, Thomas. "Word-order variation in Middle Iranic: Persian, Parthian, Bactrian, and Sogdian." Word order variation: Semitic, Turkic, and Indo-European languages in contact, Studia Typologica [STTYP] 31 (2022): 39–62.

External links

• Martin Joachim Kümmel. "Areal developments in the history of Iranic: West vs. East" (PDF). Department of Indo-European linguistics, University of Jena.
• Society for Iranian Linguistics
• Kurdish and other Iranic Languages
• Iranian EFL Journal (Archived 2019-01-22 at the Wayback Machine )
• Iranian language tree in Russian, identical with above classification.
• Old Iranian Online by Scott L. Harvey and Jonathan Slocum, free online lessons at the Linguistics Research Center at the University of Texas at Austin