This article needs additional citations for verification .(June 2021) |
Iranian | |
---|---|
Iranic | |
Ethnicity | Iranian peoples |
Geographic distribution | West Asia, Eastern Europe, Caucasus, Central Asia, and South Asia |
Linguistic classification | Indo-European
|
Proto-language | Proto-Iranian |
Subdivisions | |
ISO 639-2 / 5 | ira |
Linguasphere | 58= (phylozone) |
Glottolog | iran1269 |
Distribution of the Iranic languages in and around the Iranian plateau |
The Iranian languages, also called the Iranic languages, [1] [2] are a branch of the Indo-Iranian languages in the Indo-European language family that are spoken natively by the Iranian peoples, predominantly in the Iranian Plateau.
The Iranian languages are grouped in three stages: Old Iranian (until 400 BCE), Middle Iranian (400 BCE – 900 CE) and New Iranian (since 900 CE). The two directly-attested Old Iranian languages are Old Persian (from the Achaemenid Empire) and Old Avestan (the language of the Avesta). Of the Middle Iranian languages, the better understood and recorded ones are Middle Persian (from the Sasanian Empire), Parthian (from the Parthian Empire), and Bactrian (from the Kushan and Hephthalite empires).
As of 2008 [update] , there were an estimated 150–200 million native speakers of the Iranian languages. [3] Ethnologue estimates that there are 86 languages in the group. [4] [5]
Name | speakers |
---|---|
Persian | 84 million |
Pashto | 50 million |
Kurdish | 35 million |
Balochi | 15 million |
Caspian | 10 million |
Tajik | 8 million |
Luri | 5 million |
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The term Iran derives directly from Middle Persian Ērān, first attested in a third-century inscription at Naqsh-e Rostam, with the accompanying Parthian inscription using the term Aryān, in reference to the Iranian peoples. [6] The Middle-Iranian ērān and aryān are oblique plural forms of gentilic nouns ēr- (Middle Persian) and ary- (Parthian), both deriving from Proto-Iranian language *arya- (meaning "Aryan", i.e. "of the Iranians"), [6] [7] recognized as a derivative of Proto-Indo-European language *ar-yo-, meaning "one who assembles (skilfully)". [8] In the Iranic languages spoken on the plateau, the gentilic is attested as a self-identifier, included in ancient inscriptions and the literature of the Avesta, [9] [note 1] and remains also in other Iranian ethnic names Alan (Ossetian : ИрIr) and Iron (Ирон). [7]
When used as a linguistic term Iranian is applied to any language which descends from the ancestral Proto-Iranian language. [10]
Some scholars such as John R. Perry prefer the term Iranic as the anthropological name for the linguistic family and ethnic groups of this category, and Iranian for anything about the modern country of Iran. He uses the same analogue as in differentiating German from Germanic or differentiating Turkish and Turkic. [11]
This use of the term for the Iranian language family was introduced in 1836 by Christian Lassen. [12] Robert Needham Cust used the term Irano-Aryan in 1878, [13] and Orientalists such as George Abraham Grierson and Max Müller contrasted Irano-Aryan (Iranian) and Indo-Aryan (Indic [note 2] ). Some recent scholarship, primarily in German, has revived this convention. [14] [15] [16] [17]
The Iranian languages are divided into the following branches:
According to modern scholarship, the Avestan languages are not considered to fall under these categories, and are instead sometimes classified as Central Iranian, since they diverged from Proto-Iranian before the east-west division rose to prominence. It has traditionally been viewed as Eastern Iranian; however, it lacks a large number of Eastern Iranian features and thus is only "Eastern Iranian" in the sense that it is not Western. [18]
The Iranian languages all descend from a common ancestor: Proto-Iranian, which itself evolved from Proto-Indo-Iranian. This ancestor language is speculated to have origins in Central Asia, and the Andronovo culture of the Bronze Age is suggested as a candidate for the common Indo-Iranian culture around 2000 BCE.[ citation needed ]
The language was situated precisely in the western part of Central Asia that borders present-day Russia and Kazakhstan. It was thus in relative proximity to the other satem ethno-linguistic groups of the Indo-European family, such as Thracian, Balto-Slavic and others, and to common Indo-European's original homeland (more precisely, the Pontic-Caspian Steppe to the north of the Black Sea and the Caucasus), according to the reconstructed linguistic relationships of common Indo-European.
Proto-Iranian thus dates to some time after the Proto-Indo-Iranian breakup, or the early-2nd millennium BCE, as the Old Iranian languages began to break off and evolve separately as the various Iranian tribes migrated and settled in vast areas of southeastern Europe, the Iranian Plateau, and Central Asia.
Proto-Iranian innovations compared to Proto-Indo-Iranian include: [19] the turning of sibilant fricative *s into non-sibilant fricative glottal *h; the voiced aspirated plosives *bʰ, *dʰ, *gʰ yielding to the voiced unaspirated plosives *b, *d, *g resp.; the voiceless unaspirated stops *p, *t, *k before another consonant changing into fricatives *f, *θ, *x resp.; voiceless aspirated stops *pʰ, *tʰ, *kʰ turning into fricatives *f, *θ, *x, resp.
The multitude of Middle Iranian languages and peoples indicate that great linguistic diversity must have existed among the ancient speakers of Iranian languages. Of that variety of languages/dialects, direct evidence of only two has survived. These are:
Indirectly attested Old Iranian languages are discussed below.
Old Persian was an Old Iranian dialect as it was spoken in southwestern Iran (the modern-day province of Fars) by the inhabitants of Parsa, Persia, or Persis who also gave their name to their region and language. Genuine Old Persian is best attested in one of the three languages of the Behistun inscription, composed c. 520 BCE, and which is the last inscription (and only inscription of significant length) in which Old Persian is still grammatically correct. Later inscriptions are comparatively brief, and typically simply copies of words and phrases from earlier ones, often with grammatical errors, which suggests that by the 4th century BCE the transition from Old Persian to Middle Persian was already far advanced, but efforts were still being made to retain an "old" quality for official proclamations.
The other directly attested Old Iranian dialects are the two forms of Avestan, which take their name from their use in the Avesta, the liturgical texts of indigenous Iranian religion that now goes by the name of Zoroastrianism but in the Avesta itself is simply known as vohu daena (later: behdin). The language of the Avesta is subdivided into two dialects, conventionally known as "Old (or 'Gathic') Avestan", and "Younger Avestan". These terms, which date to the 19th century, are slightly misleading since 'Younger Avestan' is not only much younger than 'Old Avestan', but also from a different geographic region. The Old Avestan dialect is very archaic, and at roughly the same stage of development as Rigvedic Sanskrit. On the other hand, Younger Avestan is at about the same linguistic stage as Old Persian, but by virtue of its use as a sacred language retained its "old" characteristics long after the Old Iranian languages had yielded to their Middle Iranian stage. Unlike Old Persian, which has Middle Persian as its known successor, Avestan has no clearly identifiable Middle Iranian stage (the effect of Middle Iranian is indistinguishable from effects due to other causes).
In addition to Old Persian and Avestan, which are the only directly attested Old Iranian languages, all Middle Iranian languages must have had a predecessor "Old Iranian" form of that language, and thus can all be said to have had an (at least hypothetical) "Old" form. Such hypothetical Old Iranian languages include Old Parthian. Additionally, the existence of unattested languages can sometimes be inferred from the impact they had on neighbouring languages. Such transfer is known to have occurred for Old Persian, which has (what is called) a "Median" substrate in some of its vocabulary. [21] Also, foreign references to languages can also provide a hint to the existence of otherwise unattested languages, for example through toponyms/ethnonyms or in the recording of vocabulary, as Herodotus did for what he called "Scythian" and in one instance, Median (σπάκα "dog").
Conventionally, Iranian languages are grouped into "western" and "eastern" branches. [22] These terms have little meaning with respect to Old Avestan as that stage of the language may predate the settling of the Iranian peoples into western and eastern groups. The geographic terms also have little meaning when applied to Younger Avestan since it is not known where that dialect (or dialects) was spoken either. Certain is only that Avestan (all forms) and Old Persian are distinct, and since Old Persian is "western", and Avestan was not Old Persian, Avestan acquired a default assignment to "eastern". Further confusing the issue is the introduction of a western Iranian substrate in later Avestan compositions and redactions undertaken at the centers of imperial power in western Iran (either in the south-west in Persia, or in the north-west in Nisa/Parthia and Ecbatana/Media).
Two of the earliest dialectal divisions among Iranian indeed happen to not follow the later division into Western and Eastern blocks. These concern the fate of the Proto-Indo-Iranian first-series palatal consonants, *ć and *dź: [23]
As a common intermediate stage, it is possible to reconstruct depalatalized affricates: *c, *dz. (This coincides with the state of affairs in the neighboring Nuristani languages.) A further complication however concerns the consonant clusters *ćw and *dźw:
A division of Iranian languages in at least three groups during the Old Iranian period is thus implied:
It is possible that other distinct dialect groups were already in existence during this period. Good candidates are the hypothetical ancestor languages of Alanian/Scytho-Sarmatian subgroup of Scythian in the far northwest; and the hypothetical "Old Parthian" (the Old Iranian ancestor of Parthian) in the near northwest, where original *dw > *b (paralleling the development of *ćw).
What is known in Iranian linguistic history as the "Middle Iranian" era is thought to begin around the 4th century BCE lasting through the 9th century. Linguistically the Middle Iranian languages are conventionally classified into two main groups, Western and Eastern.
The Western family includes Parthian (Arsacid Pahlavi) and Middle Persian, while Bactrian, Sogdian, Khwarezmian, Saka, and Old Ossetic (Scytho-Sarmatian) fall under the Eastern category. The two languages of the Western group were linguistically very close to each other, but quite distinct from their eastern counterparts. On the other hand, the Eastern group was an areal entity whose languages retained some similarity to Avestan. They were inscribed in various Aramaic-derived alphabets which had ultimately evolved from the Achaemenid Imperial Aramaic script, though Bactrian was written using an adapted Greek script.
Middle Persian (Pahlavi) was the official language under the Sasanian dynasty in Iran. It was in use from the 3rd century CE until the beginning of the 10th century. The script used for Middle Persian in this era underwent significant maturity. Middle Persian, Parthian, and Sogdian were also used as literary languages by the Manichaeans, whose texts also survive in various non-Iranian languages, from Latin to Chinese. Manichaean texts were written in a script closely akin to the Syriac script. [24]
Following the Arab conquest of Persia, there were important changes in the role of the different dialects within the Persian Empire. The old prestige form of Middle Iranian, also known as Pahlavi, was replaced by a new standard dialect called Dari as the official language of the court. The name Dari comes from the word darbâr (دربار), which refers to the royal court, where many of the poets, protagonists and patrons of the literature flourished. The Saffarid dynasty in particular was the first in a line of many dynasties to officially adopt the new language in 875 CE. Dari may have been heavily influenced by regional dialects of eastern Iran, whereas the earlier Pahlavi standard was based more on western dialects. This new prestige dialect became the basis of Standard New Persian. Medieval Iranian scholars such as Abdullah ibn al-Muqaffa (8th century) and Ibn al-Nadim (10th century) associated the term "Dari" with the eastern province of Khorasan, while they used the term "Pahlavi" to describe the dialects of the northwestern areas between Isfahan and Azerbaijan, and "Pârsi" ("Persian" proper) to describe the dialects of Fars (Persia). They also noted that the unofficial language of the royalty itself was yet another dialect, "Khuzi", associated with the western province of Khuzestan.
The Islamic conquest also brought with it the adoption of the Arabic script for writing Persian and much later, Kurdish, Pashto and Balochi. All three were adapted to the writing by the addition of a few letters. This development probably occurred sometime during the second half of the 8th century, when the old middle Persian script began dwindling in usage. The Arabic script remains in use in contemporary modern Persian. Tajik script, used to write the Tajik language, was first Latinised in the 1920s under the then-Soviet nationality policy. The script was however subsequently Cyrillicized in the 1930s by the Soviet government.
The geographical regions in which Iranian languages were spoken were pushed back in several areas by newly neighbouring languages. Arabic spread into some parts of Western Iran (Khuzestan), and Turkic languages spread through much of Central Asia, displacing various Iranian languages such as Sogdian and Bactrian in parts of what is today Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan. In Eastern Europe, mostly comprising the territory of modern-day Ukraine, southern European Russia, and parts of the Balkans, the core region of the native Scythians, Sarmatians, and Alans had been decisively taken over as a result of absorption and assimilation (e.g. Slavicisation) by the various Proto-Slavic population of the region, by the 6th century CE. [25] [26] [27] [28] This resulted in the displacement and extinction of the once predominant Scythian languages of the region. Sogdian's close relative Yaghnobi barely survives in a small area of the Zarafshan valley east of Samarkand, and Saka as Ossetic in the Caucasus, which is the sole remnant of the once predominant Scythian languages in Eastern Europe proper and large parts of the North Caucasus. Various small Iranian languages in the Pamir Mountains survive that are derived from Eastern Iranian.
English | Zaza | Sorani Kurdish | Kurmanji Kurdish | Pashto | Tati | Talyshi | Balochi | Gilaki | Mazanderani (Tabari) | Tat | Luri | Shugni | Persian | Middle Persian | Parthian | Old Persian | Avestan | Ossetian |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
beautiful | rınd, xasek | ciwan, nayab | rind, delal, bedew, xweşik | x̌kūlay, x̌āista | xojir | ghašang | dorr, soherâ, mah rang, sharr, juwān | xujīrçī/xujīr | xoşgel, xojir | qəşəng, şihid | qəşaŋ, xoşgel | xushrui, xagh(fem.) xigh(masc.) | zibā/xuš-čehr(e)/xoşgel(ak)/ghashanq/najib | hučihr, hužihr | hužihr | naiba | xvaini, sraiia, srao- | ræsughd |
blood | goni | xwên | xwîn, xûn | wīna | xevn | xun | hon | Xun | xun | xun | xī(n) | xun | xūn | xōn | gōxan | vohuna, vaŋhutāt̰ | tug | |
bread | nan, non | nan | nan | ḍoḍəi, məṛəi | nun | nun | nān, nagan | nön | nun | nun | nu(n) | gartha | nān | nān | nān | tāiiūiri, drao-naŋh (scared bread) | dzul | |
bring | ardene | /anîn, hawerdin, hênan | anîn | (rā)wṛəl | vârden, biyordon | varde | âurten, yārag, ārag | hävərdən, härdən, ävərdən, bərdən | biyârden | avardən | o(v)erden, | videu | āwurdan, biyār ("(you) bring!") | āwurdan, āwāy-, āwar-, bar- | āwāy-, āwar-, bar- | bara- | bara, bar- | xæssyn |
brother | bıra | bira | bira | wror | bərâr | bira, boli | brāt, brās | bərär, bərâr | birâr | birar | berar | værod | barādar | brād, brâdar | brād, brādar | brātar | brātar- | æfsymær |
come | ameyene | hatin, were, bew (Pehlewanî) | hatin, were, | rā tləl | biyâmiyan | ome | āhag, āyag, hatin | həmän, ämön, hömän | biyamona, enen, biyâmuen | amarən | umae(n) | yà | āmadan | āmadan, awar | awar, čām | āy-, āgam | āgam- | cæwyn |
cry | bermayene | giryan, girîn, gîristin (Pehlewanî) | girîn | žəṛəl | bərma | berame, bame | greewag, grehten | burmə | birme | girəstən | gerevesen, gereva | náu | gerīstan/gerīye | griy-, bram- | barmâdan | snuδ, | kæwyn | |
dark | tari | tarî/tarîk | tarî | skəṇ, skaṇ, tyara | ul, gur, târica, târek | toki | tār | zuləmât, tärik | tār, siyo, zolamât | tariki | tārīk | torice | tārīk, tār | tārīg/k | tārīg, tārēn | tārīk | sāmahe, sāma | tar |
daughter | keyne, çêne/çêneke | kîj, kiç, kenîşk, düêt (Pehlewanî), dwêt (Pehlewanî) | dot, keç | lūr | titiye, dətar | kinə, kila | dohtir, duttag | lâku, kör, kijâ (girl) dətər (daughter) | kîjâ(girl), deter (daughter) | duxtər | doxter | rezin | doxtar | duxtar | duxt, duxtar | duxδar | čyzg ( Iron ), kizgæ ( Digor ) | |
day | roce, roje, roze | řoj, rûj (Pehlewanî) | roj | wrəd͡z (rwəd͡z) | revj, ruz | ruj | roç | ruz, ruj | ruz, ruj | ruz | ru | ruz | rūz | rōz | raucah- | raocah- | bon | |
do | kerdene | kirdin | kirin | kawəl | kardan, kordan | karde | kanag, kurtin | gudən, kudən, kördən | hâkerden, hâkorden | saxtən | kerde | chideu | kardan | kardan | kartan | kạrta- | kәrәta- | kænyn |
door | ber, keyber, çêber | derge/derke, derga, qapî (Kelhorî) | derî | wər, dərwāza | darvâca | bə | dar, gelo, darwāzag | bər | dar, loş | dər | dər, dar | dêve | dar | dar | dar, bar | duvara- | dvara- | dwar |
die | merdene | mirdin | mirin | mrəl | bamarden | marde | mireg, murten | murdən, mərdən | bamerden | mürdən | morde | mideu | mordan | murdan | mạriya- | mar- | mælyn | |
donkey | her | ker, gwêdirêj, xer (Pehlewanî) | ker | xər | astar, xar | hə, hər | har, her, kar | xər | xar | xər | xər | marcabe | xar | xar | kaθβa | xæræg | ||
eat | werdene | xwardin | xwarin | xwāṛə, xurāk / xwaṛəl | harden | harde | warag, warâk, wārten | xördən, xöndən | xerâk / baxârden | xardən | harde | xideu | xordan / xurāk | parwarz / xwâr, xwardīg | parwarz / xwâr | hareθra / CE-, at- | xærinag | |
egg | hak, akk | hêk/hêlke, tum, xaye (Pehlewanî), xa (Kelhorî) | hêk | hagəi | merqâna, karxâ | morqana, uyə | heyg, heyk, ā morg | murqönə, murqänə | merqâne, tîm, balî | xaykərg | xā'a | tarmurx | toxm, xāya ("testicle") | toxmag, xâyag | taoxmag, xâyag | taoxma- | ajk | |
earth | erd | zemîn, zewî, ʿerz, erd | erd, zevî | d͡zməka (md͡zəka) | zemin | zamin | zemin, degār | zəmi, gəl, bunə | zamîn, bene | xari | zemi | zimath | zamīn | zamīg | zamīg | zam- | zãm, zam, zem | zæxx |
evening | şan | êware, îware (Pehlewanî) | êvar, şev | māx̌ām (māš̥ām) | nomâzyar, nomâšon | shav | begáh | şänsər | nemâşun | şangum | evāra | véga | begáh | ēvārag | êbêrag | arəzaŋh | izær | |
eye | çım | çaw/çaş | çav | stərga | coš | čaş,gelgan | cham, chem | çum | çəş, bəj | çüm | tīya, çaş | çem | čashm | čašm | čašm | čaša- | čašman- | cæst |
father | pi, pêr | bawk, bab, babe, bawg (Pehlewanî) | bav, bab | plār | piyar, piya, dada | piya, lala, po | pet, pes | pér | pîyer, pîyar, per | piyər | bua | tat | pedar, bābā | pidar | pid | pitar | pitar | fyd |
fear | ters | tirs | tirs | wēra (yara), bēra | târs | tars | turs, terseg | tərs | taşe-vaşe, tars | tərsi | ters | hoge | tars, harās | tars | tars | tạrsa- | tares- | tas |
fiancé | waşti | desgîran,xwşavest | dergistî | čənghol [masculine], čənghəla [feminine] | numzâ | nomja | nāmzād | nömzət | numze | nükürdə | xîsmenz | nāmzād | – | – | para-dāta (affianced) | usag | ||
fine | weş, hewl | xoş | xweş | x̌a (š̥a), səm | xojir, xar | xoş | wash, hosh | xujīr, xurum | xâr, xeş, xojir | xuş, xas, xub | xu | bashand | xoš, xūb, beh | dārmag | srīra | xorz, dzæbæx | ||
finger | engışte/gışte, bêçıke | engust, pence,angus, pênce | tilî, pêçî | gwəta | anquš | anqiştə | changol, mordâneg, lenkutk | ənguşt, əngüşt | angus | əngüşt | kelek | angiht | angošt | angust | aṇgušta | ængwyldz | ||
fire | adır | agir/awir, ahir,ayer | agir | wōr (ōr) | taš | otaş | âch, atesh, âs | təş | taş | ataş | taş, gor | yoç | ātaš, āzar | âdur, âtaxsh | ādur | âç- | ātre-/aēsma- | art |
fish | mase | masî | masî | māyai | mâyi | moy | māhi, māhig | mäyi | mâhî | mahi | māhi | moie | māhi | māhig | māsyāg | masya | kæsag | |
go | şiayene | çûn, řoştin, řoyiştin, çün (Pehlewanî) | çûn | tləl | šiyen, bišiyan | şe | shoten | şön | şunen / burden | raftən | ro | sà, tideu | ro/şo | şow/row | ay- | ai- | ay-, fra-vaz | cæwyn |
God | Homa/Huma/Oma | Yezdan, Xwedê, Xuda, Xodê, Xwa(y) | Xwedê, Xweda, Xudê | Xwədāi | Xədâ | Xıdo | Xoda, Hwdâ | Xuda | Xedâ | Xuda | xodā | Xuthoi | Xodā, Izad, Yazdān, Baq | Xudā/Yazdān | baga- | baya- | xwycaw | |
good | hewl, rınd, weş | baş, çak, xas | baş, rind | x̌ə (š̥ə) | xâr, xojir | çok | zabr, sharr, jowain | xujīr, xurum | xâr, xeş, xojir | xub, xas | xu | bashand | xub, nīkū, beh | xūb, nêkog, beh | vahu- | vohu, vaŋhu- | xorz | |
grass | vaş | giya/gya | giya, çêre | wāx̌ə (wāš̥ə) | vâš | alaf | rem, sabzag | vâş | vâş | güyo | sozi, çame | woh | sabzeh, giyāh | giyâ | giya | viş | urvarā | kærdæg |
great | gırd/gırs, pil | gewre,mezin | mezin, gir | lōy, stər | pilla | yol, yal, vaz, dıjd | mastar, mazan,tuh | pilâ, pillə, pille, gət | gat, pilla | kələ | gap | wazmin | bozorg | wuzurg, pīl, yal | vazraka- | mazaṇt̰, masita, stūi | styr | |
hand | dest | dest, des | dest | lās | bâl | dast | dast | dəs, bâl | das, bāl | dəs | das | thust | dast | dast | dast | dasta- | zasta- | k'ux / arm |
head | ser | ser | ser | sər | kalla | sə, sər | sar, sarag, saghar | kəlle, sər | kalle, sar | sər | sar | cile, cale | sar | sar | kalli | sairi | sær | |
heart | zerri/zerre | dil/dił/dir(Erbil)/zil | dil | zṛə | dəl | dıl | dil, hatyr | dīl, dəl, qlf | del, zel, zil | dül | del | dile, zorth | del | dil | dil | zaraŋh, zarəδiia, aηhuš | zærdæ | |
horse | estor/ostor/astor | asp/hesp/esp, hês(t)ir | hesp | ās [male], aspa [female] | asb, astar | asp | asp | əsb, əsp | asp, as | əs | asb | vorge | asb | asp, stōr | asp, stōr | aspa | aspa- | bæx |
house | key/çê | mał, xanû, xanig, ghat | xanî, mal | kor | kiya | ka | ges, dawâr, log | sərə, xöne | sere, kime, xene | xunə | huna | chide | xāne | xânag | demāna-, nmāna- | xædzar | ||
hungry | vêşan/veyşan | birsî, wirsî (Pehlewanî) | birçî, birsî (behdînî) | lweǵai (lweẓ̌ai) | vašnâ, vešir, gesnâ | vahşian | shudig, shud | vəşnä, viştâ | veşnâ, veşnâsâr | gisnə | gosna | maghzönch | gorosne, goşne | gursag, shuy | veşnâg | ṣ̌uδ | ||
language (also tongue) | zıwan, zon, zuan, zuon, juan, jüan | ziman, zuwan | ziman | žəba | zobun, zəvân | zivon | zewān, zobān | zəvön, zuvön, zuvän | zivun, zebun, tok | zuhun | zevu | zive | zabān | zuwān | izβān | hazâna- | hizvā-, zafana (mouth) | ævzag |
laugh | huyayene | kenîn/pêkenîn, kenîn,xende,xene | kenîn | xandəl/xənda | xurəsen, xandastan | sıre | hendag, xandag | purxə, xənde/ xəndəsən | rîk, baxendesten, xanne | xəndə | xana | shinteu | xande | xande, xand | karta | Syaoθnāvareza- | xudyn | |
life | cuye, weşiye | jiyan, jîn | jiyan | žwəndūn, žwənd | zindәgi | jimon | zendegih, zind | zīndəgī, zīvəş | zindegî, jan | həyat | zeŋei | zindage, umre | zendegi, jan | zīndagīh, zīwišnīh | žīwahr, žīw- | gaēm, gaya- | card | |
man | mêrdek, camêrd/cüamêrd | mêrd, pîyaw, cuwamêr | mêr, camêr | səṛay, mēṛə | mardak, miarda | merd | merd | mərd, mərdönə | mardî | mərd | piyā | chorice, mardina | mard | mard | mard | martiya- | mašīm, mašya | adæjmag |
moon | aşme, menge (for month) | mang, heyv | meh, heyv | spūǵməi (spōẓ̌məi) | mâng | mang, owşum | máh | mâng, məng | ma, munek, mong, rojâ | ma | māh | mêst | mâh, mâng, mânk | māh | māh | mâh- | måŋha- | mæj |
mother | may, mar | dayik, dayig | dayik, dê | mōr | mâr, mâya, nana | moa, ma, ina | mât, mâs | mâr, mär | mâr, nenâ | may | dā(ya), dāle(ka) | nan | mâdar | mâdar | dayek | mâtar | mātar- | mad |
mouth | fek | dem | dev | xūla (xʷəla) | duxun, dâ:ân | gəv | dap | dəhən | dâhun, lâmîze, loşe | duhun | dam | gêve | dahân | dahân, rumb | zafan, zafarə, åŋhānō, åñh | dzyx | ||
name | name | naw, nêw | nav | nūm | num | nom | nâm | nöm | num | num | num | nöme | nâm | nâm | nâman | nãman | nom | |
night | şew | şew | şev | špa | šö, šav | şav | šap, shaw | şö, şöv, şəb | şow, şu | şöü | şo | hab | shab | shab | xšap- | xšap-, naxti | æxsæv | |
open (v) | akerdene | kirdinewe, wazkirdin (Kelhorî) | vekirin | prānistəl | vâz-kardan | okarde | pāch, pabozag | vlätən, väzän, vâ-gudən | vâ-hekârden | vakardən | vākerde(n) | ët chideu | bâz-kardan, va-kardan | abâz-kardan, višādag | būxtaka- | būxta- | gom kænyn | |
peace | haşti/aşti | aştî, aramî | aştî, aramî | rōɣa, t͡sōkāləi | dinj | aşiş | ârâm | əşt | âştî, esket | salaməti, dinci | āş(t)i | salöm | âshti, ârâmeš, ârâmî, sâzish | âštih, râmīšn | râm, râmīšn | šiyâti- | rāma- | fidyddzinad |
pig | xoz/xonz, xınzır | beraz,goraz | beraz | soḍər, xənd͡zir (Arabic), xug | xu, xuyi, xug | xug | khug, huk | xuk | xî | xug | xuk | xug | xūk | xūk | hū, varāza (boar) | xwy | ||
place | ca | cê(cêga), ga, şwên, şwîn (Pehlewanî) | cih, geh | d͡zāi | yâga | vira | ja, jaygah, hend | jâ, jigâ, jigə | jâ, gâ, kolâ | cigə, cə | jā | joi | jâh/gâh | gâh | gâh | gâθu- | gātu-, gātav- | ran |
read | wendene | xwendin/xwêndin, xwenistin | xwendin | lwastəl, kōtəl | baxânden | hande, xwande | wánag, wānten | xöndən, xönəsən | baxenden, baxundesten | xundən | vane(n) | heideu | xândan | xwândan | paiti-pǝrǝs | kæsyn | ||
say | vatene | gutin, witin | gotin | wayəl | vâten, baguten | vote | gushag, guashten | gutən, guftən | baowten, boten, bagoten | guftirən, gaf saxtən | gute(n) | lövdeu | goftan, gap(-zadan) | guftan, gōw-, wâxtan | gōw- | gaub- | vac, mrū- | dzuryn |
sister | waye | xweh, xweşk, xoşk, xuşk, xoyşk | xwîşk | xōr (xʷōr) | xâke, xâv, xâxor, xuâr | hova | gwhâr | xâxur, xâxər | xâxer, xâxor, xoar | xuvar | xuar | yàx, yàxbìç | xâhar/xwâhar | xwahar | xvaŋhar- | xo | ||
small | qıc/qıyt, wırd/werdi | giçke, qicik, hûr, biçûk, büçik (Kelhorî) | biçûk, hûr, qicik | kūčnay, waṛ(ū)kay | qijel, ruk | hırd | gwand, hurd | kuçhī, kujī, kuştə | peçik, biçuk, xerd | küçük, küşkin, kişgələ, kəm | koçek | zulice | kuchak, kam, xurd, rîz | kam, rangas | kam | kamna- | kasu, kamna- | chysyl |
son | lac, laj | law/kuř | kur, law, pis | d͡zoy (zoy) | pur, zâ | zoə, zurə | possag, baç | vəçə, rikə, pəsər, rəy | peser/rîkâ | kuk | kor | puç | pesar, pur | pur, pusar | puhr | puça | pūθra- | fyrt |
soul | roh, gan | can, giyan, rewan, revan | reh, can | sā | rəvân | con | rawân | ruh, jön | ro, jân | can | jöne | ravân, jân | rūwân, jyân | rūwân, jyân | urvan- | ud | ||
spring | wesar/usar | behar, wehar | bihar, behar | spərlay | vâ:âr | əvəsor, bahar | bārgāh | vəhâr, bâhâr | vehâr, behâr | vasal | behār, vehār | bahor | bahâr | wahâr | vâhara- | vaŋhar | ||
tall | berz | bilind/berz | bilind/berz | lwəṛ, ǰəg | pilla | barz, bılınd | borz, bwrz | burz, bələnd | belen, belend | bülünd | beleŋ | beland | boland / bârz | buland, borz | bârež | bərəzaṇt̰ | bærzond | |
ten | des | deh/de | deh | ləs | da | da | dah | dä | da, datâ | də | da | thiste | dah | dah | datha | dasa | dæs | |
three | hirê/hiri | sê | sê | drē | so, se | se, he | sey | su, sə | se, setâ | sə | se | arai | se | sê | hrē | çi- | θri- | ærtæ |
village | dewe | gund, dêhat, dê, awayî | gund | kəlay | döh, da | di | dehāt, helk, kallag, dê | mällə, məhällə, kəläyə | dih, male, kolâ | di | de | qishloq | deh, wis | wiž | dahyu- | vîs-, dahyu- | vîs | qæw |
want | waştene | xwastin, wîstin, twastin (Pehlewanî) | xwestin | ɣ(ʷ)ux̌təl | begovastan, jovastan | piye | loath, loteten | xäsən, xästən | bexâsten, bexâsti | xastən, vayistən | hāse | forteu | xâstan | xwâstan | ūna, ainišti | fændyn | ||
water | awe/awk, owe, ou | aw | av | obə/ūbə | âv, ö | ov, wat(orandian dialect) | âp | ow, âv | ow, ou ,u | ou | ow | haç | âb | âb/aw | aw | âpi | avō- | don |
when | key | key, kengî(Hewlêrî) | kengê, kîngê | kəla | key | keyna | kadi, ked | kén, kəy | ke, kemin, geder | key, çüvəxti | ke | çavaxt | key | kay | ka | cim- | kæd | |
wind | va | ba, wa (Pehlewanî) | ba | siləi | vâ | vo | gwáth | vâ | vâ | var | bād | huz | bâd | wâd | wa | vāta- | dymgæ / wad | |
wolf | verg | gurg, | gur | lewə, šarmux̌ (šarmuš̥) | varg | varg | gurk | vərg | verg, verk | gürg | gorg | urge/urj | gorg | gurg | varka- | vehrka | birægh | |
woman | cıni/ceni | jin, afret, zindage,gyian | jin | x̌əd͡za (š̥əd͡za) | zeyniye, zenak | jen, jiyan | jan, jinik | zən, zənək, zunönə | zenā | zən | zena | ghenice/ghinice, caxoi | zan | zan | žan | gǝnā, γnā, ǰaini-, | sylgojmag / us | |
year | serre | sal/sał | sal | kāl | sâl | sor, sal | sâl | sâl | sâl | sal | sāl | sol | sâl | sâl | θard | ýāre, sarәd | az | |
yes / no | ya, heya, ê / nê, ney, ni | bełê, a, erê / ne, nexêr | erê, belê, a / na | Hao, ao, wō / na, ya | ahan / na | ha / ne, na | ere, hān / na | əhâ/nä, nâ | are, ehe / nâ, no | həri, hə / nə | a, ā / na | ön / nai, nå | baleh, ârē, hā / na, née | ōhāy / ne | hâ / ney | yâ / nay, mâ | yā / noit, mā | o / næ |
yesterday | vızêr | dwênê, dwêke | duho | parūn | azira, zira, diru | zir, zinə | zí | dîru | dîruz, aruz | deydi | diru | biyor | diruz | dêrûž | diya(ka) | zyō | znon | |
English | Zaza | Sorani | Kurmanji | Pashto | Tati | Talyshi | Balochi | Gilaki | Mazandarani | Tat | Luri | Shugni | Persian | Middle Persian | Parthian | Old Persian | Avestan | Ossetian |
Mitra is the name of an Indo-Iranian divinity that predates the Rigvedic Mitrá and Avestan Mithra.
Avestan is an umbrella term for two Old Iranian languages, Old Avestan and Younger Avestan. They are known only from their conjoined use as the scriptural language of Zoroastrianism; the Avesta serves as their namesake. Both are early Eastern Iranian languages within the Indo-Iranian language branch of the Indo-European language family. Its immediate ancestor was the Proto-Iranian language, a sister language to the Proto-Indo-Aryan language, with both having developed from the earlier Proto-Indo-Iranian language; as such, Old Avestan is quite close in both grammar and lexicon to Vedic Sanskrit, the oldest preserved Indo-Aryan language.
Mithra, commonly known as Mehr or Mithras among Romans, is an ancient Iranian deity of covenants, light, oath, justice, the sun, contracts, and friendship. In addition to being the divinity of contracts, Mithra is also a judicial figure, an all-seeing protector of Truth, and the guardian of cattle, the harvest, and the Waters.
Old Persian is one of two directly attested Old Iranian languages and is the ancestor of Middle Persian. Like other Old Iranian languages, it was known to its native speakers as ariya (Iranian). Old Persian is close to both Avestan and the language of the Rig Veda, the oldest form of the Sanskrit language. All three languages are highly inflected.
The Scythian languages are a group of Eastern Iranic languages of the classical and late antique period, spoken in a vast region of Eurasia by the populations belonging to the Scythian cultures and their descendants. The dominant ethnic groups among the Scythian-speakers were nomadic pastoralists of Central Asia and the Pontic–Caspian steppe. Fragments of their speech known from inscriptions and words quoted in ancient authors as well as analysis of their names indicate that it was an Indo-European language, more specifically from the Iranic group of Indo-Iranic languages.
Median was the language of the Medes. It is an ancient Iranian language and classified as belonging to the Northwestern Iranian subfamily, which includes many other languages such as Kurdish, Old Azeri, Talysh, Gilaki, Mazandarani, Zaza–Gorani and Baluchi.
Bactrian is an extinct Eastern Iranian language formerly spoken in the Central Asian region of Bactria and used as the official language of the Kushan and the Hephthalite empires.
Indo-Iranian peoples, also known as Indo-Iranic peoples by scholars, or as Arya or Aryans from their self-designation, were a group of Indo-European speaking peoples who brought the Indo-Iranian languages, a major branch of the Indo-European language family, to major parts of Eurasia in waves from the first part of the 2nd millennium BC onwards. They eventually branched out into Iranian peoples and Indo-Aryan peoples.
In the Western world, Persia was historically the common name used for Iran. On the Nowruz of 1935, Reza Shah officially asked foreign delegates to use the Persian term Iran, the endonym of the country, in formal correspondence. Subsequently, the common adjective for citizens of Iran changed from Persian to Iranian. In 1959, the government of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, Reza Shah's son, announced that both "Persia" and "Iran" could be used interchangeably, in formal correspondence. However, the issue is still debated
among Iranians.Saka, or Sakan, was a variety of Eastern Iranian languages, attested from the ancient Buddhist kingdoms of Khotan, Kashgar and Tumshuq in the Tarim Basin, in what is now southern Xinjiang, China. It is a Middle Iranian language. The two kingdoms differed in dialect, their speech known as Khotanese and Tumshuqese.
The Eastern Iranian languages are a subgroup of the Iranian languages, having emerged during the Middle Iranian era. The Avestan language is often classified as early Eastern Iranian. As opposed to the Middle-era Western Iranian dialects, the Middle-era Eastern Iranian dialects preserve word-final syllables.
Proto-Iranian or Proto-Iranic is the reconstructed proto-language of the Iranian languages branch of Indo-European language family and thus the ancestor of the Iranian languages such as Persian, Pashto, Sogdian, Zazaki, Ossetian, Mazandarani, Kurdish, Talysh and others. Its speakers, the hypothetical Proto-Iranians, are assumed to have lived in the 2nd millennium BC and are usually connected with the Andronovo archaeological horizon.
The modern Persian name of Iran (ایران) derives from the 3rd-century Sasanian Middle Persian ērān, where it initially meant "of the Aryans," and acquired a geographical connotation in the sense of "(lands inhabited by) Aryans." In both geographic and demonymic senses, ērān is distinguished from its antonymic anērān, meaning "non-Iran(ian)".
Khvarenah (also spelled khwarenah or xwarra(h): Avestan: 𐬓𐬀𐬭𐬆𐬥𐬀𐬵 xᵛarənah) is an Avestan word for a Zoroastrian concept literally denoting "glory" or "splendour" but understood as a divine mystical force or power projected upon and aiding the appointed. The neuter noun thus also connotes "(divine) royal glory", reflecting the perceived divine empowerment of kings. The term also carries a secondary meaning of "(good) fortune"; those who possess it are able to complete their mission or function.
The Iranian peoples or Iranic peoples are a diverse grouping of peoples who are identified by their usage of the Iranian languages and other cultural similarities.
Iranian literature, or Iranic literature, refers to the literary traditions of the Iranian languages, developed predominantly in Iran and other regions in the Middle East and the Caucasus, eastern Asia Minor, and parts of western Central Asia and northwestern South Asia. These include works attested from as early as the 6th century BC. Modern Iranian literatures include Persian literature, Ossetian literature, Kurdish literature, Pashto literature, and Balochi literature, among others.
Aryan or Arya is a term originally used as an ethnocultural self-designation by Indo-Iranians in ancient times, in contrast to the nearby outsiders known as 'non-Aryan'. In Ancient India, the term ā́rya was used by the Indo-Aryan speakers of the Vedic period as an endonym (self-designation) and in reference to a region known as Āryāvarta, where the Indo-Aryan culture emerged. In the Avesta scriptures, ancient Iranian peoples similarly used the term airya to designate themselves as an ethnic group, and in reference to their mythical homeland, Airyanǝm Vaēǰō. The stem also forms the etymological source of place names such as Alania and Iran.
Proto-Indo-Aryan is the reconstructed proto-language of the Indo-Aryan languages. It is intended to reconstruct the language of the Proto-Indo-Aryans, who had migrated into the Indian subcontinent. Being descended from Proto-Indo-Iranian, it has the characteristics of a Satem language.
Arya was the ethnonym used by Iranians during the early History of Iran. In contrast to cognates of Arya used by the Vedic people and Iranic steppe nomads, the term is commonly translated using the modern ethnonym Iranian.
(..) Indeed, it is now accepted that the Sarmatians merged in with pre-Slavic populations.
(..) In their Ukrainian and Polish homeland the Slavs were intermixed and at times overlain by Germanic speakers (the Goths) and by Iranian speakers (Scythians, Sarmatians, Alans) in a shifting array of tribal and national configurations.
(..) Ancient accounts link the Amazons with the Scythians and the Sarmatians, who successively dominated the south of Russia for a millennium extending back to the seventh century B.C. The descendants of these peoples were absorbed by the Slavs who came to be known as Russians.
(..) For example, the ancient Scythians, Sarmatians (amongst others), and many other attested but now extinct peoples were assimilated in the course of history by Proto-Slavs.