The numerals and derived numbers of the Proto-Indo-European language (PIE) have been reconstructed by modern linguists based on similarities found across all Indo-European languages. The following article lists and discusses their hypothesized forms.
The cardinal numbers are reconstructed as follows:
| Number | Reconstruction (Sihler) [1] | Reconstruction (Beekes) [2] |
|---|---|---|
| one | *Hoi-no-/*Hoi-wo-/*Hoi-k(ʷ)o-; *sem- | *Hoi(H)nos ; sem-/sm̥- |
| two | *d(u)wo- | *du̯oh₁ |
| three | *trei-(full grade) / *tri-(zero grade) | *trei̯es |
| four | *kʷetwor-(o-grade) / *kʷetur-(zero grade) (see also the kʷetwóres rule ) | *kʷétu̯ōr |
| five | *penkʷe | *penkʷe |
| six | *s(w)eḱs; originally perhaps*weḱs | *(s)u̯éks |
| seven | *septm̥ | *séptm̥ |
| eight | *(h₁)oḱtṓwor*h₃eḱtō, *h₃eḱtow | *h₃eḱteh₃ |
| nine | *(h₁)newn̥ | *(h₁)néun |
| ten | *deḱm̥(t) | *déḱm̥t |
| twenty | *wīḱm̥t-; originally perhaps*widḱomt- | *du̯idḱm̥ti |
| thirty | *trīḱomt-; originally perhaps*tridḱomt- | *trih₂dḱomth₂ |
| forty | *kʷetwr̥̄ḱomt-; originally perhaps*kʷetwr̥dḱomt- | *kʷeturdḱomth₂ |
| fifty | *penkʷēḱomt-; originally perhaps*penkʷedḱomt- | *penkʷedḱomth₂ |
| sixty | *s(w)eḱsḱomt-; originally perhaps*weḱsdḱomt- | *u̯eksdḱomth₂ |
| seventy | *septm̥̄ḱomt-; originally perhaps*septm̥dḱomt- | *septm̥dḱomth₂ |
| eighty | *oḱtō(u)ḱomt-; originally perhaps*h₃eḱto(u)dḱomt- | *h₃eḱth₃dḱomth₂ |
| ninety | *(h₁)newn̥̄ḱomt-; originally perhaps*h₁newn̥dḱomt- | *h₁neundḱomth₂ |
| hundred | *ḱm̥tom; originally perhaps*dḱm̥tom | *dḱm̥tóm |
| thousand | *ǵʰeslo-; *tusdḱomti(originally "big hundred"[ citation needed ]) | *ǵʰesl- |
Other reconstructions typically differ only slightly from Beekes and Sihler. A nineteenth-century reconstruction (by Brugmann) for thousand is *tūsḱmtiə. [3] [4] See also Fortson 2004. [5]
The elements *-dḱomt- (in the numerals "twenty" to "ninety") and *dḱm̥t- (in "hundred") are reconstructed on the assumption that these numerals are derivatives of *deḱm̥(t) "ten".
Lehmann [6] believes that the numbers greater than ten were constructed separately in the dialect groups and that *ḱm̥tóm originally meant "a large number" rather than specifically "one hundred."
| PIE | English | Gothic | Latin | Ancient Greek | Sanskrit | Iranian | Slavic | Baltic | Celtic | Armenian | Albanian | Tocharian | Hittite |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| *sem- "one, together" | same (< ON samr); OE sam- "together"; [also German zusammen] | sama "same" | sem-el "once", sem-per "always", sim-plex "single, simple", sin-gulī "one each, single" | heĩs, hén, mía "one" < *sems, *sem, *smiH₂ | sam- "together", samá "same, equal, any" | Av hama-, OPers hama- "any, all" Past sam "even, fine" | OCS samŭ "self, alone, one" | Lith sam-, są- "with"; OPrus sa-, sen- "with, dividing" | OIr samlith "at the same time"; W hafal "equal" | mi "one" | gjithë “all” < PAlb *semdza | A sas, B ṣe "one" < *sems | |
| *(h₁)óynos, (h₁)óywos "one" | one (< OE ān) | ains "one" | ūnus (archaic oinos) | oĩnos "one (on a die)", oĩ(w)os "alone" | (ēka- < *oi-ko-; Mitanni-Aryan aika-vartana "one turn (around a track)") [7] | Av aēva-, OPers aiva-, (NPers yek- "one, only, alone") | OCS inŭ "one, another" | Lith víenas, OPrus ains "one" | OIr ōen, W un "one" | andr-ēn "right there", ast-ēn "right here" | ? Gheg tânë, Tosk tërë "all" < PIE *tod-oino-; ??? një "one" < *ňân < PIE *eni-oino- [lower-alpha 1] | B -aiwenta "group" < "*unit" | ās "one" |
| *dwóh₁ , neut. *dwóy(H₁) "two" | two (< OE twā) | twái (fem. twōs, neut. twa) "two" | duo "two" | dúō "two" | dvā́(u) "two" | Av dva, fem. neut. baē "two"; NPers do "two"; Kurd diwa "two (fem.)" | OCS dŭva "two" | Lith dù, OPrus dwai "two" | OIr da, W dau (fem. dwy) "two" | erku "two" | dy "two" | A wu, B wi "two"(<PTC *tuwó) | dā-, ta-; HLuw tuwa/i- "two"; Lyc kbi- "two"; Mil tba "two" [lower-alpha 2] [9] |
| *tréyes (fem. *tisres, [10] neut. *tríH₂) "three" | three (< OE þrīe) | þreis "three" | trēs "three" | treĩs "three" | tráyas (fem. tisrás) "three" | Av θrayō, θrayas (fem. tisrō, neut. θri), OPers çi-, Parth hrē "three" | OCS trĭje "three" | Lith trỹs, OPrus tris, Latg treis "three" | OIr trí (fem. téoir), W tri (fem. tair, teir) "three" | erekʿ "three" | tre masc., tri fem. "three" | A tre, B trai "three" | tri- "three"; teriyas- (gen. pl.) |
| *kʷetwóres (fem. *kʷétesres, neut. *kʷetwṓr) "four" | four (< OE fēower) | fidwor "four" (In Germanic influenced by pénkʷe "five") | quattuor "four" [lower-alpha 3] | téssares "four" | masc. catvā́ras (acc. catúras), neut. catvā́ri, fem. cátasras "four" | Av masc. čaθwārō (acc. čaturąm), fem. čataŋrō "four"; NPers čahār "four"; Kurd çwar | OCS četyre "four" | Lith keturì, OPrus ketturei "four" [lower-alpha 4] | Gaul petuar[ios] "four" [12] OIr ceth(a)ir (fem. cethēoir, influenced by fem. tēoir "three") "four"; W pedwar (fem. pedair) "four" | čʿorkʿ, kʿaṙ(rare) "four | katër "four" | A śtwar, B śtwer "four" | (remodelled in Hittite and Luwian) Lyc Teteri |
| *pénkʷe "five" | five (< OE fīf) | fimf "five" | quīnque "five" [lower-alpha 5] | pénte "five" | páñca "five"; Mitanni-Aryan panza- "five" [7] | Av panča "five"; Kurd pênc/pênz | OCS pętĭ "five" | Lith penkì, OPrus penkei "five" [lower-alpha 6] | Gaul pinpe-, pompe "five" [12] | hing "five" | pesë "five" | A päñ, B piś "five" | Luw paⁿta "five" |
| *swéḱs "six" | six (< OE siex) | sáihs "six" | sex "six" | héx, dial. wéx "six" | ṣáṣ "six" | Av xšvaš "six" | OCS šestĭ "six" | Lith šešì, OPrus uššai "six" | Celtib sues "six"; [12] | vecʿ "six" | gjashtë "six" | A ṣäk, B ṣkas "six" | |
| *septḿ̥ "seven" | seven (< OE seofon) | sibun "seven" | septem "seven" | heptá "seven" | saptá "seven"; Mitanni-Aryan šatta- "seven" [7] | Av hapta, NPers haft-, "seven" | OCS sedmĭ "seven" | Lith septynì, OPrus septinnei "seven" | OIr secht, W saith "seven" | eawtʿn "seven" | shtatë "seven" | A ṣpät, B ṣukt "seven" | sipta- "seven" |
| *h₁oḱtṓ(w) "eight" | eight (< OE eahta) | ahtáu "eight" | octō "eight" | oktṓ "eight" | aṣṭā́(u) "eight" | Av ašta "eight" | OCS osmĭ "eight" [lower-alpha 7] | Lith aštuonì, OPrus astonei, Latg ostoni "eight" | Gaul oxtu- "eight" [12] OIr ocht n- "eight"; [lower-alpha 8] W wyth "eight" | utʿ "eight" | tetë "eight" < *H₁ok̂tō-t- | A okät, B okt "eight" | Lyc aitãta "eight" [15] |
| *(h₁)néwn̥ "nine" | nine (< OE nigon) | niun "nine" | novem "nine" | ennéa "nine" | náva "nine" | Av nava, NPers noh- "nine" | OCS devętĭ "nine" < *newn̥-ti- (Influenced by dékm̥t "ten") | Lith devynì (influenced by dékm̥t "ten"), OPrus newinei "nine" | OIr noí n-, W naw "nine" | inn "nine" | nëntë "nine" < *newn̥-ti- | AB ñu | Lyc nuñtãta "nine" [16] |
| *déḱm̥t "ten" | ten (< OE tien) | taíhun "ten" | decem "ten" | déka "ten" | dáśa "ten" | Av dasa, NPers dah- "ten" | OCS desętĭ "ten" | Lith dẽšimt, OPrus desimtan "ten" | Gaul decam- "ten"; [12] | tasn "ten" | dhjetë "ten" < *dék̂m̥t-i- | A śäk, B śak "ten" | [lower-alpha 9] |
| *wídḱm̥ti(h₁) "twenty" < *dwi-dḱm̥t-i(h₁) "two tens" | (remodelled) | (remodelled) | vīgintī "twenty" | eíkosi "twenty" | viṁśatí "twenty", dviṁśatí "twenty" | Av vīsaiti, Ossetian insäi "twenty" | (remodelled) | Lith dvidešimt "twenty" | OIr fiche (fichet), OW uceint "twenty" | kʿsan "twenty" | zet "twenty" | A wiki, B ikäṃ "twenty" | |
| *ḱm̥tóm "hundred" < *dḱm̥tóm | hundred (< OE hund, hund-red) | hunda (pl.) "hundred" | centum "hundred" | he-katón "hundred" | śatám "hundred" | Av satǝm "hundred" | OCS sŭto "hundred" | Lith šim̃tas, OPrus simtan "hundred" | OIr cét, W can(t) "hundred" | qind "hundred" (possibly borrowed from Latin centum) | A känt, B kante "hundred" |
The numbers three and four had feminine forms with the suffix *-s(o)r-, reconstructed as *t(r)i-sr- and *kʷetwr̥-sr-, respectively. [5]
Special forms of the numerals were used as prefixes, usually to form bahuvrihis (like five-fingered in English):
| Number | Prefix (Fortson) [19] |
|---|---|
| one- (together, same) | *sm̥- |
| two- | *dwi- |
| three- | *tri- |
| four- | *kʷ(e)tru-or*kʷetwr̥- |
The ordinal numbers are difficult to reconstruct due to their significant variation in the daughter languages. The following reconstructions are tentative: [20]
The cardinals ending in a syllabic nasal (seven, nine, ten) inserted a second nasal before the thematic vowel, resulting in the suffixes *-mó- and *-nó-. These and the suffix *-t(ó)- spread to neighbouring ordinals, seen for example in Vedic aṣṭamá- "eighth" and Lithuanian deviñtas "ninth".
 | This section needs additional citations for verification .(October 2008) |
Reflexes, or descendants of the PIE reconstructed forms in its daughter languages, include the following.
| Number | Reconstruction (Sihler) | Reflexes [5] [21] |
|---|---|---|
| one | *Hoi-no- [22] | Alb. njã > një (dialectal nji/njo), Lith. vienas, Latv. viens, Gaul. oinos, Gm. ein/eins, Eng. ān/one, Gk. οἶος oîos, Av. aēuua, Ir. óin/aon, Kashmiri akh, Lat. ūnus, Roman. unu, Osc. uinus, OCS edinŭ, ON einn, OPruss. aīns, Osset. iu/ieu, Pers. aiva-/yek, Kamviri ev, Pol. jeden, Russ. odin, Ved. aika, Umbr. uns, Goth. ains, Welsh un, Kurdish (Kurmanji) yek/êk |
| *sem- [23] | Arm. mi/mek/meg, Alb. gjithë, Lith. sa, sav-as, Eng. sum/some, Gm. saman/zusammen, Gk. εἷς heîs, Hitt. san, Av. hakeret, Ir. samail/samhail, Lat. semel, Lyc. sñta, Kamviri sâ~, Pers. hama/hamin, Russ. odin, yedin, perviy Ved. sakŕ̥t, Toch. sas/ṣe, Welsh hafal, ON sami, Goth. sama | |
| two | *du(w)o- [24] | Hitt. dā-, Luv. tuwa/i-, Lyc. kbi-, Mil. tba-, Ved. dvā(u), Av. duua, Pers. duva/do, Osset. dyuuæ/duuæ, Kashmiri zū', Kamviri dü, Gk. δύο dúo, Lat. duō, Osc. dus, Umbr. tuf, Roman. doi, ON tveir, Goth. twai, Eng. twā/two, Gm. zwêne/zwei, Gaul. vo, Ir. dá/dó, Welsh dau, Arm. erkow/yerku/yergu, Toch. wu/wi, OPruss. dwāi, Latv. divi, Lith. dù, OCS dŭva, Pol. dwa, Russ. dva, Alb. dy;di/dy;dў, Kurdish (Kurmanji) du |
| three | *trei- [25] | Hitt. teriyaš (gen. pl.), Lyc. trei, Ved. tráyas, Av. θrāiiō, Pers. çi/se, Osset. ærtæ/ærtæ, Kashmiri tre, Kamviri tre, Gk. τρεῖς treîs, Lat. trēs, Osc. trís, Umbr. trif, Roman. trei, ON þrír, Goth. þreis, Eng. þrēo/three, Gm. drī/drei, Gaul. treis, Ir. treí/trí, Welsh tri, Arm. erek῾/yerek῾/yerek῾, Toch. tre/trai, OPruss. tri, Latv. trīs, Lith. trỹs, OCS trije, Pol. trzy, Russ. tri, Alb. tre/tre. Kurdish (Kurmanji) sê |
| four | *kʷetwor- [26] | Lyc. teteri, Ved. catvāras, Av. caθuuārō, Pers. /čahār, Osset. cyppar/cuppar, Kashmiri tsor, Kamviri što, Gk. τέτταρες téttares, Lat. quattuor, Osc. petora, Roman. patru, Umbr. petor, ON fjórir, Goth. fidwor, Eng. fēower/four, Gm. feor/vier, Gaul. petor, Ir. cethir/ceathair, Welsh pedwar, Arm. čork῾/čors/čors, Toch. śtwar/śtwer, OPruss. keturjāi, Latv. četri, Lith. keturì, OCS četyre, Pol. cztery, Russ. četyre, Alb. katër;katrë/katër, Kurdish (Kurmanji) çar |
| five | *pénkʷe [27] | Luv. panta, Ved. pañca, Av. panca, Pers. panča/panj, Osset. fondz/fondz, Kashmiri pā.~tsh Kamviri puč, Gk. πέντε pénte, Lat. quīnque, Roman. cinci, Osc. pompe, Umbr. pumpe, ON fimm, Goth. fimf, Eng. fīf/five, Gm. fimf/fünf, Gaul. pempe, Ir. cóic/cúig, Welsh pump, Arm. hing/hing/hink, Toch. päñ/piś, OPruss. pēnkjāi, Latv. pieci, Lith. penkì, OCS pętĭ, Pol. pięć, Russ. pjat', Alb. pesë/pes(ë);pês, Kurdish (Kurmanji) pênc |
| six | *s(w)eḱs [28] | Ved. ṣáṣ, Av. xšuuaš, Pers. /šeš, Osset. æxsæz/æxsæz, Kashmiri śe, Kamviri ṣu, Gk. ἕξ héx, Lat. sex, Osc. sehs, Umbr. sehs, ON sex, Goth. saíhs, Eng. siex/six, Gm. sëhs/sechs, Gaul. suex, Ir. sé/sé, Welsh chwech, Arm. vec῾/vec῾/vec῾, Toch. ṣäk/ṣkas, OPruss. usjai, Latv. seši, Lith. šešì, OCS šestĭ, Pol. sześć, Roman. șase, Russ. šest', Alb. gjashtë/gjasht(ë);xhasht, Kurdish (Kurmanji) şeş |
| seven | *septm̥ [29] | Hitt. šipta-, Ved. saptá, Av. hapta, Pers. hafta/haft, Osset. avd/avd, Kashmiri sath, Kamviri sut, Gk. ἑπτά heptá, Lat. septem, Osc. seften, Roman. șapte, ON sjau, Goth. sibun, Eng. seofon/seven, Gm. sibun/sieben, Gaul. sextan, Ir. secht/seacht, Welsh saith, Arm. ewt῾n/yot῾/yot῾ě, Toch. ṣpät/ṣukt, OPruss. septīnjai, Lith. septynì, Latv. septiņi, OCS sedmĭ, Pol. siedem, Russ. sem', Alb. shtatë/shtat(ë), Kurdish (Kurmanji) heft |
| eight | *h₃eḱtō [30] | Lyc. aitãta-, [31] Ved. aṣṭā(u), Av. ašta, Pers. ašta/hašt, Osset. ast/ast, Kashmiri ā.ṭh, Kamviri uṣṭ, Gk. ὀκτώ oktṓ, Lat. octō, Roman. opt, Osc. uhto, ON átta, Goth. ahtau, Eng. eahta/eight, Gm. ahto/acht, Gaul. oxtū, Ir. ocht/ocht, Welsh wyth, Arm. owt῾/ut῾ě, Toch. okät/okt, OPruss. astōnjai, Latv. astoņi, Lith. aštuonì, OCS osmĭ, Pol. osiem, Russ. vosem', Alb. tëte/tet(ë), Kurdish (Kurmanji) heşt |
| nine | *(h₁)newn̥ [32] | Lyc. ñuñtãta-, [33] Ved. nava, Av. nauua, Pers. nava/noh, Kashmiri nav, Kamviri nu, Gk. ἐννέ(ϝ)α enné(w)a, Lat. novem, Osc. nuven, Umbr. nuvim, Roman. nouă, ON níu, Goth. niun, Eng. nigon/nine, Gm. niun/neun, Gaul. navan, Ir. nói/naoi, Welsh naw, Arm. inn/inn/inně, TochA. ñu, OPruss. newīnjai, Latv. deviņi, Lith. devynì, OCS devętĭ, Pol. dziewięć, Russ. devjat', Alb. nëntë/nëndë/nând(ë);non(t), Kurdish (Kurmanji) neh, no |
| ten | *deḱm̥(t) [34] | Ved. dáśa, Av. dasa, Pers. daθa/dah, Osset. dæs/dæs, Kashmiri da.h, Kamviri duc, Gk. δέκα déka, Lat. decem, Osc. deken, Umbr. desem, Roman. zece, ON tíu, Goth. taíhun, Eng. tīen/ten, Gm. zëhen/zehn, Gaul. decam, Ir. deich/deich, Welsh deg, Arm. tasn/tas/dasě, Toch. śäk/śak, OPruss. desīmtan, Latv. desmit, Lith. dẽšimt, OCS desętĭ, Pol. dziesięć, Russ. desjat', Alb. dhjetë/dhet(ë), Kurdish (Kurmanji) deh, de |
| twenty | *wīḱm̥t- | Ved. viṁśatí-, Av. vīsaiti, Pers. /bēst, Kashmiri vuh, Kamviri vici, Doric ϝίκατι wíkati, Lat. vīgintī, Gaul. vocontio, Ir. fiche/fiche, M. Welsh ugein(t), Arm. k῾san/k῾san/k῾san, Toch. wiki/ikäṃ, Lith. dvi-de-šimt, Alb. njëzet/njizet, Kurdish (Kurmanji) bîst |
| thirty | *trīḱomt- | Skr. triṅśat, Gk. τριάκοντα triákonta, Lat. trīgintā, Ir. trícho/tríocha, Lith. tris-de-šimt[ citation needed ], Kurdish (Kurmanji) sih, sî |
| forty | *kʷetwr̥̄ḱomt- | Skr. catvāriṅśat, Gk. τεσσαράκοντα tessarákonta, Lat. quadrāgintā, Ir. cethorcho/ceathracha, Lith. keturias-de-šimt[ citation needed ], Kurdish (Kurmanji) çil |
| fifty | *penkʷēḱomt- | Skr. pañcāśat, Gk. πεντήκοντα pentḗkonta, Lat. quinquāgintā, Ir. coíca/caoga, Lith. penkias-de-šimt[ citation needed ], Kurdish (Kurmanji) pênceh, pêncî |
| sixty | *s(w)eḱsḱomt- | Skr. ṣaṣṭih, Gk. ἑξήκοντα hexḗkonta, Lat. sexāgintā, Ir. sesca/seasca, Lith. šešias-de-šimt, Russ. šest'desjat[ citation needed ], Kurdish (Kurmanji) şêst |
| seventy | *septm̥̄ḱomt- | Skr. saptatih, Gk. ἑβδομήκοντα hebdomḗkonta, Lat. septuāgintā, Ir. sechtmoga/seachtó, Lith. septynias-de-šimt, Russ. sem'desjat[ citation needed ], Kurdish (Kurmanji) heftê |
| eighty | *h₃eḱtō(u)ḱomt- | Skr. aśītih, Gk. ὀγδοήκοντα ogdoḗkonta, Lat. octōgintā, Ir. ochtmoga/ochtó, Lith. aštuonias-de-šimt, Russ. vosem'desjat[ citation needed ], Kurdish (Kurmanji) heştê |
| ninety | *(h₁)newn̥̄ḱomt- | Skr. navatih, Gk. ἐνενήκοντα enenḗkonta, Lat. nōnāgintā, Ir. nócha/nócha, Lith. devynias-de-šimt, Russ. devjanosto[ citation needed ], Kurdish (Kurmanji) not, newet |
| hundred | *ḱm̥tom [35] | Ved. śatám, Av. satəm, Roman. sută, Pers. /sad, Osset. sædæ, Kashmiri śath, Gk. ἑκατόν hekatón, Lat. centum, ON hundrað, Goth. hund, Eng. hundred/hundred, Gm. hunt/hundert, Gaul. cantam, Ir. cét/céad, Welsh cant, Toch. känt/kante, Latv. simts, Lith. šim̃tas, OCS sŭto, Pol. sto, Russ. sto/sotnja, Kurdish (Kurmanji) sed |
| thousand | *(sm̥-)ǵʰéslo- | Skr. sahasram, Av. hazarəm, Pers. /hazār, Gk. χίλιοι khílioi, Lat. mīlle, Kurdish (Kurmanji) hezar |
| *tusdḱomti | ON þúsund, Goth. þūsundi, Eng. þūsend/thousand, Gm. þūsunt/tausend, TochA. tmāṃ, TochB. tmāne/tumane, Lith. tūkstantis, Latv. tūkstots, OCS tysǫšti, Pol. tysiąc, Russ. tys'ača | |
| *wel-tyo- [36] | Toch. wälts/yaltse; OCS velьjь/velikъ |
In the following languages, reflexes separated by slashes mean:
| Number | Reconstruction | Reflexes [5] |
|---|---|---|
| three | *t(r)i-sr- | Ved. tisrás, Av. tišrō, Gaul. tidres, Ir. teoir/? |
| four | *kʷetwr̥-sr- | Ved. cátasras, Av. cataŋrō, Lith. keturios, Ir. cetheoir/? |
| Number | Reconstruction | Reflexes (with examples) [19] [37] |
|---|---|---|
| one- (together, same) | *sm̥- | Ved. sa-kŕ̥t "once", Gk. ᾰ̔πλόος haplóos "one-fold, simple", Lat. sim-plex "one-fold" |
| two- | *dwi- | Ved. dvi-pád- "two-footed", Gk. dí-pod- "two-footed", Archaic Lat. dui-dent "a sacrificial animal with two teeth", Lith. dvi-kojis "two-footed" |
| three- | *tri- | Ved. tri-pád- "three-footed", Gk. trí-pod- "three-footed (table)", Lat. tri-ped- "three-footed", Lith. tri-kojis "three-footed", Gaul. tri-garanus "having three cranes", Alb. tri-dhjetë "thirty" (three ten) |
| four- | *kʷ(e)tru- | Ved. cátuṣ-pád- "four-footed", Av. caθru-gaoša- "four-eared", Gk. tetrá-pod- "four-footed", Lat. quadru-ped- "four-footed", Lith. ketur-kojis "four-footed" |
| Number | Reconstruction | Reflexes |
|---|---|---|
| first | *pr̥h₃-wó- | Ved. pūrviyá-, Lat. prīvus, OCS prĭvŭ, [20] Pol. pierwszy, Russ. pervyj, Toch. parwät/parwe |
| *pr̥h₃-mó- | Goth. fruma, Lith. pìrmas, [20] Latv. pirmais, Lat. prīmus, Osc. perum | |
| other forms | Eng. fyrst/first, [20] Hitt. para, Lyc. pri, Av. pairi, vienet-as, paoiriia, Osset. fyccag, farast/farast, Kamviri pürük, Gk. πρῶτος prôtos, Umbr. pert, ON fyrstr, Gm. furist/Fürst "prince, ruler"; fruo/früh "early", | |
| second | *(d)wi-teró- | Skr. dvitīya, Gk. δεύτερος deúteros, Russ. vtoroj[ citation needed ] |
| third | *tri-t(y)ó- | Ved. tr̥tīya-, Gk. τρίτος trítos, Lat. tertius, [20] Alb. (i) tretë, Lith. trečias < *tretias, Russ. tretij[ citation needed ] |
| fourth | *kʷetwr̥-tó- | Gk. τέταρτος tétartos, Eng. feorþa/fourth, OCS četvrĭtŭ, [20] Alb. (i) katërt, Lat. quārtus, Lith. ketvirtas, Russ. chetv'ortyj[ citation needed ] |
| fifth | *penkʷ-tó- | Av. puxδa-, Gk. πέμπτος pémptos, [20] Lat. quīntus, Alb. (i) pestë, Lith. penktas, Russ. p'atyj[ citation needed ] |
| sixth | *sweḱs-tó- | Gk. ἕκτος héktos, Lat. sextus, [20] Alb.(i) gjashtë, Lith. šeštas, Russ. šestoj[ citation needed ] |
| seventh | *septm̥-(m/t)ó- | Gk. ἕβδομος hébdomos, Lat. septimus, OCS sedmŭ, [20] Lith. sẽkmas (then displaced by the neologism "septintas") Russ. sed'moj[ citation needed ] |
| eighth | *h₃eḱtōw-ó-s | Gk. ὄγδο(ϝ)ος ógdo(w)os, Lat. octāvus, [20] Russ. vos'moj |
| *oḱtm-o-s? | Lith. ašmas (then displaced by the neologism "aštuntas") | |
| ninth | *(h₁)newn̥-(n/t)ó- | Lat. nōnus, [20] |
| tenth | *deḱm̥-(m/t)ó- | Ved. daśamá-, Av. dasəma-, Lat. decimus, [20] Gk. δέκατος dékatos, Lith. dešimtas, Russ. desjatyj[ citation needed ] |
The Indo-European languages are a language family native to the overwhelming majority of Europe, the Iranian plateau, and the northern Indian subcontinent. Some European languages of this family—English, French, Portuguese, Russian, Dutch, and Spanish—have expanded through colonialism in the modern period and are now spoken across several continents. The Indo-European family is divided into several branches or sub-families, of which there are eight groups with languages still alive today: Albanian, Armenian, Balto-Slavic, Celtic, Germanic, Hellenic, Indo-Iranian, and Italic; another nine subdivisions are now extinct.
The Tocharianlanguages, also known as the Arśi-Kuči, Agnean-Kuchean or Kuchean-Agnean languages, are an extinct branch of the Indo-European language family spoken by inhabitants of the Tarim Basin, the Tocharians. The languages are known from manuscripts dating from the 5th to the 8th century AD, which were found in oasis cities on the northern edge of the Tarim Basin and the Lop Desert. The discovery of these languages in the early 20th century contradicted the formerly prevalent idea of an east–west division of the Indo-European language family as centum and satem languages, and prompted reinvigorated study of the Indo-European family. Scholars studying these manuscripts in the early 20th century identified their authors with the Tokharoi, a name used in ancient sources for people of Bactria (Tokharistan). Although this identification is now believed to be mistaken, "Tocharian" remains the usual term for these languages.
The laryngeal theory is a theory in historical linguistics positing that the Proto-Indo-European language included a number of laryngeal consonants that are not reconstructable by direct application of the comparative method to the Indo-European family. The "missing" sounds remain consonants of an indeterminate place of articulation towards the back of the mouth, though further information is difficult to derive. Proponents aim to use the theory to:
In Indo-European studies, a thematic vowel or theme vowel is the vowel *e or *o from ablaut placed before the ending of a Proto-Indo-European (PIE) word. Nouns, adjectives, and verbs in the Indo-European languages with this vowel are thematic, and those without it are athematic. Used more generally, a thematic vowel is any vowel found at the end of the stem of a word.
Proto-Indo-European (PIE) is the reconstructed common ancestor of the Indo-European language family. No direct record of Proto-Indo-European exists; its proposed features have been derived by linguistic reconstruction from documented Indo-European languages.
The Balto-Slavic languages form a branch of the Indo-European family of languages, traditionally comprising the Baltic and Slavic languages. Baltic and Slavic languages share several linguistic traits not found in any other Indo-European branch, which points to a period of common development and origin.
The Paleo-Balkan languages are a geographical grouping of various Indo-European languages that were spoken in the Balkans and surrounding areas in ancient times. In antiquity, Dacian, Greek, Illyrian, Messapic, Paeonian, Phrygian and Thracian were the Paleo-Balkan languages which were attested in literature. They may have included other unattested languages.
Proto-Indo-European verbs reflect a complex system of morphology, more complicated than the substantive, with verbs categorized according to their aspect, using multiple grammatical moods and voices, and being conjugated according to person, number and tense. In addition to finite forms thus formed, non-finite forms such as participles are also extensively used.
The Lexikon der indogermanischen Verben is an etymological dictionary of the Proto-Indo-European (PIE) verb. The first edition appeared in 1998, edited by Helmut Rix. A second edition followed in 2001. The book may be seen as an update to the verb entries of the Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch (IEW) by Julius Pokorny. It was the first dictionary fully utilizing the modern three-laryngeal theory with reconstructions of Indo-European verbal roots.
Proto-Indo-Iranian, also called Proto-Indo-Iranic or Proto-Aryan, is the reconstructed proto-language of the Indo-Iranian branch of Indo-European. Its speakers, the hypothetical Proto-Indo-Iranians, are assumed to have lived in the late 3rd millennium BC, and are often connected with the Sintashta culture of the Eurasian Steppe and the early Andronovo archaeological horizon.
Proto-Indo-European pronouns have been reconstructed by modern linguists, based on similarities found across all Indo-European languages. This article lists and discusses the hypothesised forms.
Proto-Indo-European nominals include nouns, adjectives, and pronouns. Their grammatical forms and meanings have been reconstructed by modern linguists, based on similarities found across all Indo-European languages. This article discusses nouns and adjectives; Proto-Indo-European pronouns are treated elsewhere.
The phonology of the Proto-Indo-European language (PIE) has been reconstructed by linguists, based on the similarities and differences among current and extinct Indo-European languages. Because PIE was not written, linguists must rely on the evidence of its earliest attested descendants, such as Hittite, Sanskrit, Ancient Greek, and Latin, to reconstruct its phonology.
The particles of the Proto-Indo-European language (PIE) have been reconstructed by modern linguists based on similarities found across all Indo-European languages.
Jay Harold Jasanoff is an American linguist and Indo-Europeanist, best known for his h2e-conjugation theory of the Proto-Indo-European verbal system. He teaches Indo-European linguistics and historical linguistics at Harvard University.
Osthoff's law is an Indo-European sound law which states that long vowels shorten when followed by a resonant, followed in turn by another consonant. It is named after German Indo-Europeanist Hermann Osthoff, who first formulated it.
Languages of the Indo-European family are classified as either centum languages or satem languages according to how the dorsal consonants of the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European language (PIE) developed. An example of the different developments is provided by the words for "hundred" found in the early attested Indo-European languages. In centum languages, they typically began with a sound, but in satem languages, they often began with.
The boukólos rule is a phonological rule of the Proto-Indo-European language (PIE). It states that a labiovelar stop dissimilates to an ordinary velar stop next to the vowel *u or its corresponding glide *w.
The following is a table of many of the most fundamental Proto-Indo-European language (PIE) words and roots, with their cognates in all of the major families of descendants.
Graeco-Phrygian is a proposed subgroup of the Indo-European language family which comprises the Hellenic and Phrygian languages.
