Oscan language

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Oscan
Denarius-Marsic Federation-Syd 627-1-.jpg
Denarius of Marsican Confederation with Oscan legend
Native to Samnium, Campania, Lucania, Calabria and Abruzzo
Regionsouth and south-central Italy
Extinct >79 AD [1]
Early forms
Dialects
Old Italic alphabet
Language codes
ISO 639-3 osc
osc
Glottolog osca1245
Iron Age Italy.png
Approximate distribution of languages in Iron Age Italy in the sixth century BCE
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Oscan is an extinct Indo-European language of southern Italy. The language is in the Osco-Umbrian or Sabellic branch of the Italic languages. Oscan is therefore a close relative of Umbrian and South Picene.

Contents

Oscan was spoken by a number of tribes, including the Samnites, [2] the Aurunci (Ausones), and the Sidicini. The latter two tribes were often grouped under the name "Osci". The Oscan group is part of the Osco-Umbrian or Sabellic family, and includes the Oscan language and three variants (Hernican, Marrucinian and Paelignian) known only from inscriptions left by the Hernici, Marrucini and Paeligni, minor tribes of eastern central Italy. Adapted from the Etruscan alphabet, the Central Oscan alphabet was used to write Oscan in Campania and surrounding territories from the 5th century BCE until at least the 1st century CE. [3]

Evidence

The Oscan language in the 5th century BCE Osco diffusione.gif
The Oscan language in the 5th century BCE

Oscan is known from inscriptions dating as far back as the 5th century BCE. The most important Oscan inscriptions are the Tabula Bantina, the Oscan Tablet or Tabula Osca, [4] and the Cippus Abellanus. In Apulia, there is evidence that ancient currency was inscribed in Oscan (dating to before 300 BCE) [5] at Teanum Apulum. [6] Oscan graffiti on the walls of Pompeii indicate its persistence in at least one urban environment well into the 1st century of the common era. [7]

In total, as of 2017, there were 800 found Oscan texts, with a rapid expansion in recent decades. [8] Oscan was written in various scripts depending on time period and location, including the "native" Oscan script, the South Oscan script which was based on Greek, and the ultimately prevailing Roman Oscan script. [8]

Demise

In coastal zones of Southern Italy, Oscan is thought to have survived three centuries of bilingualism with Greek between 400 and 100 BCE, making it "an unusual case of stable societal bilingualism" wherein neither language became dominant or caused the death of the other; however, over the course of the Roman period, both Oscan and Greek were progressively effaced from Southern Italy, excepting the controversial possibility of Griko representing a continuation of ancient dialects of Greek. [8] Oscan's usage declined following the Social War. [9] Graffiti in towns across the Oscan speech area indicate it remained in colloquial usage. [1] One piece of evidence that supports the colloquial usage of the language is the presence of Oscan graffiti on walls of Pompeii that were reconstructed after the earthquake of 62 CE, [10] [11] which must therefore have been written between 62 and 79 CE. [1] Other scholars argue that this is not strong evidence for the survival of Oscan as an official language in the area, given the disappearance of public inscriptions in Oscan after Roman colonization. [12] It is possible that both languages existed simultaneously under different conditions, in which Latin was given political, religious, and administrative importance while Oscan was considered a "low" language. [13] [14] This phenomenon is referred to as diglossia with bilingualism. [15] Some Oscan graffiti exists from the 1st century CE, but it is rare to find evidence from Italy of Latin-speaking Roman citizens representing themselves as having non–Latin-speaking ancestors. [12]

General characteristics

Oscan speakers came into close contact with the Latium population. [16] Early Latin texts have been discovered nearby major Oscan settlements. For example, the Garigliano Bowl was found close to Minturnae, less than 40 kilometers from Capua, which was once a large Oscan settlement. [16] Oscan had much in common with Latin, though there are also many striking differences, and many common word-groups in Latin were absent or represented by entirely different forms. For example, Latin volo, velle, volui, and other such forms from the Proto-Indo-European root *welh₁- ('to will') were represented by words derived from *ǵʰer- ('to desire'): Oscan herest ('(s)he shall want, (s)he shall desire', German cognate 'begehren', Dutch 'begeren', English cognate 'yearn') as opposed to Latin volent (id.). Latin locus (place) was absent and represented by the hapax slaagid (place), which Italian linguist Alberto Manco has linked to a surviving local toponym. [17]

In phonology too, Oscan exhibited a number of clear differences from Latin: thus, Oscan 'p' in place of Latin 'qu' (Osc. pis, Lat. quis) (compare the similar P-Celtic/Q-Celtic cleavage in the Celtic languages); 'b' in place of Latin 'v'; medial 'f' in contrast to Latin 'b' or 'd' (Osc. mefiai, Lat. mediae). [18]

Oscan is considered to be the most conservative of all the known Italic languages, and among attested Indo-European languages it is rivaled only by Greek in the retention of the inherited vowel system with the diphthongs intact. [19] [16]

Writing system

The linguistic landscape of Central Italy at the beginning of Roman expansion Linguistic Landscape of Central Italy.png
The linguistic landscape of Central Italy at the beginning of Roman expansion

Alphabet

Oscan was originally written in a specific "Oscan alphabet", one of the Old Italic scripts derived from (or cognate with) the Etruscan alphabet. Later inscriptions are written in the Greek and Latin alphabets. [20]

The "Etruscan" alphabet

The Osci probably adopted the archaic Etruscan alphabet during the 7th century BCE, but a recognizably Oscan variant of the alphabet is attested only from the 5th century BCE. At the beginning of the 3rd century BCE its sign inventory was extended over the classical Etruscan alphabet by the introduction of lowered variants of I and U, transcribed as Í and Ú. Ú came to be used to represent Oscan /o/, while U was used for /u/ as well as historical long */oː/, which had undergone a sound shift in Oscan to become ~[uː]. Í was used to denote a higher-mid [ẹ]. [21]

Oscan alphabet.svg

The Z of the native alphabet is pronounced [ts]. [22] Doubling of vowels was used to denote length but a long I is written IÍ. [18]

The "Greek" alphabet

Oscan written with the Greek alphabet was identical to the standard alphabet with the addition of two letters: one for the native alphabet's H and one for its V. [18] The letters η and ω do not indicate quantity. [18] Sometimes, the clusters ηι and ωϝ denote the diphthongs /ei/ and /ou/ respectively while ει and oυ are saved to denote monophthongs /iː/ and /uː/ of the native alphabet. [18] At other times, ει and oυ are used to denote diphthongs, in which case o denotes the /uː/ sound. [18]

The "Latin" alphabet

When written in the Latin alphabet, the Oscan Z does not represent [ts] but instead [z], which is not written differently from [s] in the native alphabet. [20]

Transliteration

When Oscan inscriptions are quoted, it is conventional to transliterate those in the "Oscan" alphabet into Latin boldface, those in the "Latin" alphabet into Latin italics, and those in the "Greek" alphabet into the modern Greek alphabet. Letters of all three alphabets are represented in lower case. [23]

Phonology

Vowels

Vowels are regularly lengthened before ns and nct (in the latter of which the n is lost) and possibly before nf and nx as well. [24] Anaptyxis, the development of a vowel between a liquid or nasal and another consonant, preceding or following, occurs frequently in Oscan; if the other (non-liquid/nasal) consonant precedes, the new vowel is the same as the preceding vowel. If the other consonant follows, the new vowel is the same as the following vowel. [25]

Monophthongs

A

Short a remains in most positions [26] Long ā remains in an initial or medial position. Final ā starts to sound similar to [ɔː] so that it is written ú or, rarely, u. [27]

E

Short e "generally remains unchanged;" before a labial in a medial syllable, it becomes u or i, and before another vowel, e raises to higher-mid [ẹ], written í. [28] Long ē similarly raises to higher-mid [ẹ], the sound of written í or íí. [29]

I

Short i becomes written í. [30] Long ī is spelt with i but when written with doubling as a mark of length with ií. [31]

O

Short o remains mostly unchanged, written ú; [32] before a final -m, o becomes more like u. [33] Long ō becomes denoted by u or uu. [34]

U

Short u generally remains unchanged; after t, d, n, the sound becomes that of iu. [35] Long ū generally remains unchanged; it changed to an ī sound in monosyllables, and may have changed to an ī sound for final syllables. [36]

Diphthongs

Oscan had the following diphthongs: [37]

/ay//ey//oy/
/aw//ew//ow/

The sounds of diphthongs remain unchanged from the Proto-Indo-European origins. [19]

Consonants

The consonant inventory of Oscan is as follows: [38]

Labial Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal
Plosive voiceless p t k
voiced b d g
Fricative f s h
Nasal m n
Liquid l
Rhotic r
Semivowel j w

S

In Oscan, s between vowels did not undergo rhotacism as it did in Latin and Umbrian; but it was voiced, becoming the sound /z/. However, between vowels, the original cluster rs developed either to a simple r with lengthening on the preceding vowel, or to a long rr (as in Latin), and at the end of a word, original rs becomes r just as in Latin. Unlike in Latin, the s is not dropped, either Oscan or Umbrian, from the consonant clusters sm, sn, sl: Umbrian `sesna "dinner," Oscan kersnu vs Latin cēna. [39]

Morphology

Noun declension

Oscan nouns can have one of the seven cases: nominative, vocative, accusative, genitive, dative, ablative and locative (the latter is not present in Latin). Oscan nouns, like in Latin, are divided into multiple declension patterns.

Second-declension nouns

The second declension in Oscan has a few features that distinguish it from its Latin counterpart.

  • The nominative singular of masculines features the syncope of *-os to -s, leading to further phonetic and orthographic consequences.
  • The genitive singular -eís is taken from the i-stems.
  • The nominative plural -ús preserves the usual Indo-European nominative plural ending for animate thematic nouns, which Latin replaced with -ī < *-oi from pronominal declensions.

These nouns in Oscan are declined as follows:

Oscan second declension
SingularPlural
Nominative-s(masculine) [* 1]
-úm(neuter)		-ús(masculine)
-ú(neuter)
Vocative-e ?
Accusative-úm [* 2] -úss(masculine)
-ú(neuter)
Genitive-eís-úm
Dative-úí-úís
Ablative-úd
Locative-eí
  1. ↑ If a cluster /ts/ is formed by this ending, the cluster is spelled as -z, for instance in húrz "enclosure" (< *hortos).
  2. ↑ -im in io-stem nouns like Pakis (personal name), accusative Pakim.

Third-declension nouns

Like in Latin, the third declension in Oscan is a merger of the i-stem nouns with the consonant-stem nouns.

These nouns in Oscan are declined as follows. Neuters are not attested.

Oscan third declension
SingularPlural
Nominative-s [* 1] -s [* 2]
Vocative ? ?
Accusative-úm, -um-s
Genitive-eís-úm
Dative-eí-is
Ablative-úd
Locative
  1. ↑ Absorbs the stem-final consonant in some words and is outright absent in others.
  2. ↑ If a cluster /ts/ is formed by this ending, the cluster is spelled as -z, for instance in deívúz (a class of deity).

Verbal system

Verbs in Oscan are inflected for the following categories: [40]

Present, future and future perfect forms in the active voice use the following set of personal endings: [41]

SingularPlural
1st-ō
2nd-s
3rd-t-nt

Imperfect, perfect indicative and all tenses of the subjunctive in the active voice use a different set of endings: [41]

SingularPlural
1st-m
2nd-s
3rd-d-ns

Passive endings are attested only for the 3rd person: singular -ter, plural -nter. [42]

Perfect stems are derived from the present stem in different ways. Latin -vī- and -s- perfects are not attested in Oscan. [43] Instead, Oscan uses its own set of forms, including reduplicated perfects such as deded 'gave', -tt- suffix as in prúfa-tt-ed 'approved', -k- suffix as in kella-k-ed 'collected, and -f- suffix as in aíkda-f-ed 'rebuilt'. Some verbs also use suppletive forms. [44]

Other tenses are formed by suffixation: [45]

MoodTenseStemSuffixExample
IndicativeImperfectPresent-fā-fu-fa-ns 'they were'
FuturePresent-(e)s-deiua-s-t 'he will swear'
Future perfectPerfect-us-tríbarakatt-us-et 'they will have built'
SubjunctivePresentPresent-ī- (for a-stems), -ā- (for other stems)deiua-i-d 'let him swear'
ImperfectPresent-sē-fu-sí-d 'should be'
PerfectPerfect-ē-tríbarakatt-í-ns 'should build'

The following non-finite forms are attested (all of them are based on the present stem): [46]

FormSuffixExample
Present active participle-nt-praese-nt-id 'being at hand' (Abl.sg. fem.)
Past participle-to-teremna-tu 'widened' (Nom.sg. fem.)
Present active infinitive-omtríbarakav-úm 'to build'
Present passive infinitive-fi/-firsakara-fír 'to be consecrated'
Gerundive-nno-úpsa-nna-m 'build' (Acc.sg. fem.)

Examples of Oscan texts

From the Cippus Abellanus

Ekkum svaí píd herieset trííbarak avúm tereí púd liímítúm pernúm púís herekleís fíísnú mefiú íst, ehtrad feíhúss pús herekleís fíísnam amfret, pert víam pússt íst paí íp íst, pústin slagím senateís suveís tanginúd tríbarakavúm líkítud. íním íúk tríbarakkiuf pam núvlanús tríbarakattuset íúk tríbarakkiuf íním úíttiuf abellanúm estud. avt púst feíhúís pús físnam amfret, eíseí tereí nep abellanús nep núvlanús pídum tríbarakattíns. avt thesavrúm púd eseí tereí íst, pún patensíns, múíníkad tanginúd patensíns, íním píd eíseí thesavreí púkkapíd eestit aíttíúm alttram alttrús herríns. avt anter slagím abellanam íním núvlanam súllad víú uruvú íst. pedú íst eísaí víaí mefiaí teremenniú staíet.

In Latin:

Item si quid volent aedificare in territorio quod limitibus tenus quibus Herculis fanum medium est, extra muros, qui Herculis fanum ambiunt, [per] viam positum est, quae ibi est, pro finibus senatus sui sententia, aedificare liceto. Et id aedificium quam Nolani aedificaverint, id aedificium et usus Abellanorum esto. At post muros qui fanum ambiunt, in eo territorio nec Avellani nec Nolani quidquam aedificaverint. At thesaurum qui in eo territorio est, cum paterent, communi sententia paterent, et quidquid in eo thesauro quandoque extat, portionum alteram alteri caperent. At inter fines Abellanos et Nolanos ubique via curva est, [pedes] est in ea via media termina stant.

In English:

And if anyone shall want to build on the land within the boundaries where the temple of Hercules stands in the middle, may the senate allow him to build outside of the walls that encircle the sanctuary of Hercules, across the road leads there. And a building that a man from Nola builds, shall be of use by the people of Nola. And a building that a man from Abella builds, shall be of use by the people of Abella. But beyond the wall that encircle the sanctuary, in that territory neither the Abellans nor the Nolans may build anything. But the treasury that is in that territory, when it is opened it shall be opened following a shared decision, and whatever is in that treasury, they shall share equally amongst them. But the road that as between the borders of Abella and Nola is a communal road. The boundaries stand in the middle of this road.

From Tabula Bantina

First paragraph

out of six paragraphs in total, lines 3-8 (the first couple lines are too damaged to be clearly legible):

(3) … deiuast maimas carneis senateis tanginud am … (4) XL osiins, pon ioc egmo comparascuster. Suae pis pertemust, pruter pan … (5) deiuatud sipus comenei, perum dolum malum, siom ioc comono mais egmas touti- (6)cas amnud pan pieisum brateis auti cadeis amnud; inim idic siom dat senates (7) tanginud maimas carneis pertumum. Piei ex comono pertemest, izic eizeic zicelei (8) comono ni hipid. [47]

In Latin:

(3) … iurabit maximae partis senatus sententia [dummodo non minus] (4) XL adsint, cum ea res consulta erit. Si quis peremerit, prius quam peremerit, (5) iurato sciens in committio sine dolo malo, se ea comitia magis rei publicae causa, (6) quam cuiuspiam gratiae aut inimicitiae causa; idque se de senatus (7) sententia maximae partis perimere. Cui sic comitia perimet (quisquam), is eo die (8) comitia non habuerit. [47]

In English:

(3) … he shall take oath with the assent of the majority of the senate, provided that not less than (4) 40 are present, when the matter is under advisement. If anyone by right of intercession shall prevent the assembly, before preventing it, (5) he shall swear wittingly in the assembly without guile, that he prevents this assembly rather for the sake of the public welfare, (6) rather than out of favor or malice toward anyone; and that too in accordance with the judgment of the majority of the senate. The presiding magistrate whose assembly is prevented in this way shall not hold the assembly on this day. [48]

Notes: Oscan carn- “part, piece” is related to Latin carn- “meat” (seen in English ‘carnivore’), from an Indo-European root *ker- meaning ‘cut’―apparently the Latin word originally meant ‘piece (of meat).’ [49] Oscan tangin- "judgement, assent" is ultimately related to English 'think'. [50]

Second paragraph

= lines 8-13. In this and the following paragraph, the assembly is being discussed in its judiciary function as a court of appeals:

(8) ...Pis pocapit post post exac comono hafies meddis dat castris loufir (9) en eituas, factud pous touto deiuatuns tanginom deicans, siom dateizasc idic tangineis (10) deicum, pod walaemom touticom tadait ezum. nep fefacid pod pis dat eizac egmad min[s] (11) deiuaid dolud malud. Suae pis contrud exeic fefacust auti comono hipust, molto etan- (12) -to estud: n. EtruscanPH-02.svg EtruscanPH-02.svg . In. suaepis ionc fortis meddis moltaum herest, ampert minstreis aeteis (13) aetuas moltas moltaum licitud. [51]

In Latin:

(8) ...Quis quandoque post hac comitia habebit magistratus de capite (9) vel in pecunias, facito ut populus iuras sententiam dicant, se de iis id sententiae (10) deicum, quod optimum populum censeat esse, neve fecerit quo quis de ea re minus (11) iuret dolo malo. Si quis contra hoc fecerit aut comitia habuerit, multo tanta esto: n. MM. Et siquis eum potius magistratus multare volet, dumtaxat minoris partis (13) pecuniae multae multare liceto. [51]

In English:

(8) ... Whatever magistrate shall hereafter hold an assembly in suit involving the death penalty (9) or a fine, let him make the people pronounce judgment, after having sworn that they will such judgment (10) render, as they believe to be for the best public good, and let him prevent anyone from, in this matter, (11) swearing with guile. If anyone shall act or hold a council contrary to this, let the fine be 2000 sesterces. And if any magistrate prefers to fix the fine, he may do so, provided it is less than half the property (13) of the guilty person. [52]

Third Paragraph

= lines 13-18

(13)...Suaepis pru meddixud altrei castrud auti eituas (14) zicolom dicust, izic comono ni hipid ne pon op toutad petirupert ururst sipus perum dolom (15) mallom in. trutum zico. touto peremust. Petiropert, neip mais pomptis, com preiuatud actud (16) pruter pam medicationom didest, in.pon posmom con preiuatud urust, eisucen zuculud (17) zicolom XXX nesimum comonom ni hipid. suae pid contrud exeic fefacust, ionc suaepist (18) herest licitud, ampert mistreis aeteis eituas [53]

In Latin:

(13)... Siquis pro matistatu alteri capitis aut pecuniae (14) diem dixerit, is comitia ne habuerit nisi cum apud populum quater oraverit sciens sine dolo (15) malo et quartum diem populus perceperit. Quater, neque plus quinquens, reo agito (16) prius quam iudicationem dabit, et cum postremum cum reo oraverit, ab eo die (17) in diebus XXX proximis comitia non habuerit. Si quis contra hoc fecerit, eum siquis volet magistratus moltare, (18) liceto, dumtaxat minoris partis pecuniae liceto. [53]

In English:

(13) ...If any magistrate, in a suit involving a death or a fine for another, (14) shall have appointed the day, he must not hold the assembly until he has brought the accusation four times in the presence of the people without (15) guile, and the people have been advised of the fourth day. Four times, and not more than five, must he argue the case with the defendant before he pronounces the indictment, and when he has argued for the last time with the defendant, he must not hold the assembly within thirty days from that day. And if anyone shall have done contrary to this, if any magistrate wishes to fix the fine, (18) he may, but only for less than half the property of the guilty person be permitted. [54]

The Testament of Vibius Adiranus

In Oscan:

v(iíbis). aadirans. v(iíbieís). eítiuvam. paam vereiiaí. púmpaiianaí. trístaamentud. deded. eísak. eítiuvad v(iíbis). viínikiís. m(a)r(aheis). kvaísstur. púmpaiians. trííbúm. ekak. kúmbennieís. tanginud. úpsannam deded. ísídum. prúfatted. [12]

In English:

Vibius Adiranus, son of Vibius, gave in his will money to the Pompeian vereiia-. With this money, Vibius Vinicius, son of Maras, Pompeian quaestor, dedicated the construction of this building by decision of the senate, and the same man approved it. [12]

See also

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The Osco-Umbrian, Sabellic or Sabellian languages are an extinct group of Italic languages, the Indo-European languages that were spoken in Central and Southern Italy by the Osco-Umbrians before being replaced by Latin, as the power of Ancient Rome expanded. Their written attestations developed from the middle of the 1st millennium BC to the early centuries of the 1st millennium AD. The languages are known almost exclusively from inscriptions, principally of Oscan and Umbrian, but there are also some Osco-Umbrian loanwords in Latin. Besides the two major branches of Oscan and Umbrian, South Picene may represent a third branch of Sabellic. The whole linguistic Sabellic area, however, might be considered a dialect continuum. Paucity of evidence from most of the "minor dialects" contributes to the difficulty of making these determinations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Latino-Faliscan languages</span> Language family

The Latino-Faliscan or Latinian languages form a group of the Italic languages within the Indo-European family. They were spoken by the Latino-Faliscan people of Italy who lived there from the early 1st millennium BCE.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of Latin</span>

Latin is a member of the broad family of Italic languages. Its alphabet, the Latin alphabet, emerged from the Old Italic alphabets, which in turn were derived from the Etruscan, Greek and Phoenician scripts. Historical Latin came from the prehistoric language of the Latium region, specifically around the River Tiber, where Roman civilization first developed. How and when Latin came to be spoken has long been debated.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lydian alphabet</span> Alphabet used to write the Lydian language

Lydian script was used to write the Lydian language. Like other scripts of Anatolia in the Iron Age, the Lydian alphabet is based on the Phoenician alphabet. It is related to the East Greek alphabet, but it has unique features.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of the Latin script</span> Evolution of the Roman alphabet

The Latin script is the most widely used alphabetic writing system in the world. It is the standard script of the English language and is often referred to simply as "the alphabet" in English. It is a true alphabet which originated in the 7th century BC in Italy and has changed continually over the last 2,500 years. It has roots in the Semitic alphabet and its offshoot alphabets, the Phoenician, Greek, and Etruscan. The phonetic values of some letters changed, some letters were lost and gained, and several writing styles ("hands") developed. Two such styles, the minuscule and majuscule hands, were combined into one script with alternate forms for the lower and upper case letters. Modern uppercase letters differ only slightly from their classical counterparts, and there are few regional variants.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Proto-Italic language</span> Ancestor of Latin and other Italic languages

The Proto-Italic language is the ancestor of the Italic languages, most notably Latin and its descendants, the Romance languages. It is not directly attested in writing, but has been reconstructed to some degree through the comparative method. Proto-Italic descended from the earlier Proto-Indo-European language.

The Tabula Bantina is a bronze tablet and one of the major sources for ancient Oscan, an extinct Indo-European language closely related to Latin. It was discovered in 1790 near Banzi, in the Italian region of Basilicata. It now may be found in the Naples Archaeological Museum.

The Cippus Abellanus is a stone slab inscribed in the Oscan language. It is one of the most important examples of the Oscan language along with the Tabula Bantina.

References

  1. 1 2 3 Schrijver, Peter (2016). "Oscan love of Rome". Glotta. 92 (1): 223–226. doi:10.13109/glot.2016.92.1.223. ISSN   0017-1298. Page 2 in the online version.
  2. ↑ Monaco, Davide (4 November 2011). "Samnites the People". Samniti.info. Retrieved 4 November 2011.
  3. ↑ Lejeune, Michel (1970). "Phonologie osque et graphie grecque". Revue des Études Anciennes (in French). 72 (3): 271–316. doi:10.3406/rea.1970.3871. ISSN   0035-2004.
  4. ↑ "Samnites Oscan Tablet of Agnone".
  5. ↑ "Teano Apulo". Treccani (in Italian).
  6. ↑ Salvemini Biagio, Massafra Angelo (May 2014). Storia della Puglia. Dalle origini al Seicento (in Italian). Laterza. ISBN   978-88-581-1388-2.
  7. ↑ Freeman, Philip (1999). The Survival of Etruscan. Page 82: "Oscan graffiti on the walls of Pompeii show that non-Latin languages could thrive in urban locations in Italy well into the 1st century CE."
  8. 1 2 3 McDonald, K. L. (2017). "Fragmentary ancient languages as "bad data": towards a methodology for investigating multilingualism in epigraphic sources" (PDF). pp. 4–6.
  9. ↑ Lomas, Kathryn, "The Hellenization of Italy", in Powell, Anton. The Greek World. Page 354.
  10. ↑ Cooley, Alison (2002)."The survival of Oscan in Roman Pompeii", in A.E. Cooley (ed.), Becoming Roman, Writing Latin? Literacy and Epigraphy in the Roman West, Portsmouth (Journal of Roman Archaeology), 77–86. Page 84
  11. ↑ Cooley (2014). Pompeii and Herculaneum: A Sourcebook. New York – London (Routledge). Page 104.
  12. 1 2 3 4 McDonald, Katherine (2012). "The Testament of Vibius Adiranus". Journal of Roman Studies. 102: 40–55. doi:10.1017/S0075435812000044. ISSN   0075-4358. S2CID   162821087.
  13. ↑ Cooley, Alison; Burnett, Andrew M. (2002). Becoming Roman, writing Latin? : literacy and epigraphy in the Roman West. Journal of Roman Archaeology. ISBN   1-887829-48-2. OCLC   54951998.
  14. ↑ Vaänänen, Veikko (31 December 1959). Le latin vulgaire des inscriptions pompéiennes. De Gruyter. doi:10.1515/9783112537206. ISBN   978-3-11-253720-6. S2CID   246734111.
  15. ↑ Fishman, Joshua A. (27 August 2003), "Bilingualism with and without diglossia; diglossia with and without bilingualism", The Bilingualism Reader, Routledge, pp. 87–94, doi:10.4324/9780203461341-12, ISBN   978-0-203-46134-1 , retrieved 9 April 2022
  16. 1 2 3 Clackson, James; Horrocks, Geoffrey C. (2011). The Blackwell history of the Latin language. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN   978-1-4443-3920-8. OCLC   126227889.
  17. ↑ Alberto Manco, "Sull’osco *slagi-", AIΩN Linguistica Archived 23 October 2016 at the Wayback Machine 28, 2006.
  18. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Buck 1904, p. 23.
  19. 1 2 Buck 1904, p. 18.
  20. 1 2 Buck 1904, pp. 22–23.
  21. ↑ Wallace 2007, p. 6.
  22. ↑ Buck 1904, p. 22.
  23. ↑ Buck 1904, p. xvii.
  24. ↑ Buck 1904, p. 47.
  25. ↑ Buck 1904, p. 50.
  26. ↑ Buck 1904, pp. 29–30.
  27. ↑ Buck 1904, p. 30.
  28. ↑ Buck 1904, pp. 31–32.
  29. ↑ Buck 1904, p. 33.
  30. ↑ Buck 1904, p. 34.
  31. ↑ Buck 1904, p. 35.
  32. ↑ Buck 1904, p. 36.
  33. ↑ Buck 1904, p. 37.
  34. ↑ Buck 1904, p. 38.
  35. ↑ Buck 1904, p. 40.
  36. ↑ Buck 1904, p. 41.
  37. ↑ Wallace 2007, p. 13.
  38. ↑ Wallace 2007, p. 11.
  39. ↑ Buck 1904, pp. 73–76.
  40. ↑ Wallace 2007, p. 27.
  41. 1 2 Buck 1904, p. 151.
  42. ↑ Buck 1904, p. 154.
  43. ↑ Buck 1904, p. 169.
  44. ↑ Wallace 2007, p. 29.
  45. ↑ Wallace 2007, p. 30.
  46. ↑ Wallace 2007, p. 33.
  47. 1 2 Buck 1904, p. 231.
  48. ↑ Buck 1904, p. 235.
  49. ↑ "Etymonline: Proto-Indo-European *sker-".
  50. ↑ "Etymonline: think".
  51. 1 2 Buck 1904, pp. 231–232.
  52. ↑ Buck 1904, pp. 236.
  53. 1 2 Buck 1904, pp. 232.
  54. ↑ Buck 1904, pp. 237.

Sources

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