Proto-Indo-Aryan language

Proto-Indo-Aryan
Proto-Indo-Aryan
PIA, Proto-Indic
Reconstruction of	Indo-Aryan languages
Era	2000 BC
Reconstructed; ancestors	Proto-Indo-European Proto-Indo-Iranian ;

Last updated December 27, 2025

Proto-Indo-Aryan (sometimes Proto-Indic^{[note 1]}) is the reconstructed proto-language of the Indo-Aryan languages.^[1] It is intended to reconstruct the language of the Indo-Aryans, who had migrated into the Indian subcontinent. Being descended from Proto-Indo-Iranian (which in turn is descended from Proto-Indo-European),^[2] it has the characteristics of a satem language.^[3]

History

Proto-Indo-Aryan is meant to be the predecessor of Old Indo-Aryan (1500–300 BCE), which is directly attested as Vedic and Classical Sanskrit, as well as by the Indo-Aryan superstrate in Mitanni. Indeed, Vedic Sanskrit is very close to Proto-Indo-Aryan.^[4]

Some of the Prakrits display a few minor features derived from Proto-Indo-Aryan that had already disappeared in Vedic Sanskrit.

Today, numerous modern Indo-Aryan languages are extant.

Differences from Vedic

Despite the great archaicity of Vedic, the other Indo-Aryan languages preserve a small number of conservative features lost in Vedic.^[5]

One of these is the representation of Proto-Indo-European *l and *r. Vedic (as also most Iranic languages) merges both as /r/. Later, however, some instances of Indo-European /l/ again surface in Classical Sanskrit, indicating that the contrast survived in an early Indo-Aryan dialect parallel to Vedic. (A dialect with only /l/ is additionally posited to underlie Magadhi Prakrit.)^[6] However, it is not clear that the contrast actually survived anywhere in Indo-Iranian, not even in Proto-Indo-Iranian, as /l/ is also found in place of original *r in Indo-Iranian languages.

The common consonant cluster kṣ/kʂ/ of Vedic and later Sanskrit has a particularly wide range of Proto-Indo-European (PIE) and Proto-Indo-Iranian (PII) sources, which partly remain distinct in later Indo-Aryan languages:^[7]

PIE *ks, *kʷs, *gs, *gʷs > PII *kš > Middle Indo-Aryan kh-, -kkh-
PIE *dʰgʷʰ, *gʰs, *gʷʰs > PII *gʱžʱ > Middle Indo-Aryan gh-, -ggh-
PIE *tḱ; *ǵs, *ḱs > PII *tć, *ćš > Middle Indo-Aryan ch-, -cch-
PIE *dʰǵʰ, *ǵʰs > PII *ȷ́ʱžʱ > Middle Indo-Aryan jh-, -jh-

Personal pronouns (nominative case)

Most personal pronouns are identical between Proto-Indo-Iranian and Proto-Indo-Aryan and show modest differences between Proto-Indo-Aryan and Sanskrit


Pronoun	PIE	PII and PIA
I	éǵ > eǵHóm	aȷ́Hám > aȷ́ʰám > PIA aźʰám > Skr* अहम् (ahám)
You	*túh₂	túH > PIA* tuHám > Skr* त्वम् (tvám)
He	ey- (eyóm?) *só	*sá
She	*séh₂	sáH > Skr* सा (sā́)
It	*tód	tád > Skr* तद् (tad)
We	wéy > weyóm	*wayám
You (all)	*yū́	yúH > Skr* यूयम् (yūyám)
They (m.)	*tóy	táy > Skr* ते (te) /tai/
They (f.)	*téh₂es	tā́s (or táHas?) > Skr ताः (tāḥ)
They (n.)	*téh₂	tá > Skr* तानि (tāni)

Numerals

Most numerals are identical between Proto-Indo-Iranian and Proto-Indo-Aryan. Most number show minimal differences between Proto-Indo-Aryan and Sanskrit (e.g., the loss of the fricative sound *H).


Numeral	PIE	PII and PIA
One (1)	h₁óynos > h₁óykos	*Háykas > Skr एक (éka) /aika/
Two (2)	*dwóh₁	dwáH > Skr* द्व (dvá)
Three (3)	*tréyes	tráyas > Skr* त्रयः (tráyaḥ) [nom. plur.]
Four (4)	*kʷetwóres	čatwā́ras > Skr* चत्वारः (catvā́raḥ) [nom.]
Five (5)	*pénkʷe	*pánča
Six (6)	*swéḱs	šwáćš > PIA* ṣwáṭṣ > Skr* षट् (ṣáṭ)
Seven (7)	*septḿ̥	*saptá
Eight (8)	*oḱtṓw	Haštā́ > PIA* Haṣṭā́ > Skr* अष्ट (aṣṭá)
Nine (9)	*h₁néwn̥	Hnáwa > Skr* नव (náva)
Ten (10)	*déḱm̥	dáća > PIA* *dáśa

Notes

↑ In modern and colloquial context, the term "Indic" refers more generally to the languages of the Indian subcontinent, thus also including non-Aryan languages like Dravidian and Munda. See e.g. Reynolds, Mike; Verma, Mahendra (2007). "Indic languages". In Britain, David (ed.). Language in the British Isles. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 293–307. ISBN 978-0-521-79488-6 . Retrieved 2021-10-04.

References

↑ Cardona, George; Jain, Dhanesh (26 July 2007). The Indo-Aryan Languages. Routledge. ISBN 9781135797119 . Retrieved 24 October 2015.
↑ "ARYANS – Encyclopedia Iranica". Encyclopedia Iranica. Retrieved 23 October 2015.
↑ Wheeler, L. Kip. "The Indo-European Family of Languages". Dr. Wheeler's Website. Retrieved 12 November 2015.
↑ see e.g. Radhakrishnan & Moore 1957 , p. 3; Witzel, Michael, "Vedas and Upaniṣads", in: Flood 2003 , p. 68; MacDonell 2004 , pp. 29–39; Sanskrit literature (2003) in Philip's Encyclopedia. Accessed 2007-08-09
↑ Masica, Colin P. (1991). The Indo-Aryan Languages. p. 156.
↑ Masica, Colin P. (1991). The Indo-Aryan Languages. p. 97.
↑ Kobayashi, Masato (2004). Historical Phonology of Old Indo-Aryan Consonants. Study of Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa Monograph Series. Vol. 42. pp. 60–65. ISBN 4-87297-894-3.

Works cited

Flood, Gavin, ed. (2003). The Blackwell companion to Hinduism. Oxford: Blackwell Publ. ISBN 1-4051-3251-5.
MacDonell, Arthur Anthony (2004). A Practical Sanskrit Dictionary. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-2000-5.
Radhakrishnan, S.; Moore, C. A. (1957). A Source Book in Indian Philosophy . Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-01958-1.{{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)

External links

Category:Proto-Indo-Aryan language on Wiktionary

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[1] In modern and colloquial context, the term "Indic" refers more generally to the languages of the Indian subcontinent, thus also including non-Aryan languages like Dravidian and Munda. See e.g. Reynolds, Mike; Verma, Mahendra (2007). "Indic languages". In Britain, David (ed.). Language in the British Isles. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 293–307. ISBN 978-0-521-79488-6 . Retrieved 2021-10-04.

[2] Cardona, George; Jain, Dhanesh (26 July 2007). The Indo-Aryan Languages. Routledge. ISBN 9781135797119 . Retrieved 24 October 2015.

[3] "ARYANS – Encyclopedia Iranica". Encyclopedia Iranica. Retrieved 23 October 2015.

[4] Wheeler, L. Kip. "The Indo-European Family of Languages". Dr. Wheeler's Website. Retrieved 12 November 2015.

[5] see e.g. Radhakrishnan & Moore 1957 , p. 3; Witzel, Michael, "Vedas and Upaniṣads", in: Flood 2003 , p. 68; MacDonell 2004 , pp. 29–39; Sanskrit literature (2003) in Philip's Encyclopedia. Accessed 2007-08-09

[6] Masica, Colin P. (1991). The Indo-Aryan Languages. p. 156.

[7] Masica, Colin P. (1991). The Indo-Aryan Languages. p. 97.

[8] Kobayashi, Masato (2004). Historical Phonology of Old Indo-Aryan Consonants. Study of Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa Monograph Series. Vol. 42. pp. 60–65. ISBN 4-87297-894-3.

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