Fire worship

Last updated • 8 min readFrom Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

FireAltarWorship.JPG
Agni 18th century miniature.jpg
Indo-Parthian stone palette, illustrating a fire ritual (left); Agni the Hindu deity of fire, with a very prominent place among Rigvedic deities (right).

Worship or deification of fire (also pyrodulia, pyrolatry or pyrolatria), or fire rituals, religious rituals centred on a fire, are known from various religions. Fire has been an important part of human culture since the Lower Paleolithic. Religious or animist notions connected to fire are assumed to reach back to such early prehuman times.

Contents

There may be a fire god, as a personification of fires in general, and he may be believed to reside in some sense in any particular ritual fire, or the fire may represent worship of another deity.

Indo-European religions

In Indo-European languages, there were two concepts regarding fire: that of an animate type called * h₁n̥gʷnis (cf. Sanskrit agni, Albanian : enji , [1] English ignite from Latin ignis, Polish ogień and Russian ogon), and an inanimate type *péh₂wr̥ (cf. English fire, Greek pyr, Sanskrit pu). [2] [3] A similar distinction existed for water. [4]

Fire rituals that are commonly found among Indo-European peoples have been firstly attested by the Vedas, with hymns dedicated to the fire god Agni. [5]

Albanian

Albanian tattoo patterns - Sun and Fire symbols.png
Albanian tattoo patterns.png
Albanian traditional tattoo patterns: 19th century (top), early 20th century (bottom). They are symbols of the Sun (Dielli) and the Moon (Hëna); the cross (also swastika in some tattoos) is the Albanian traditional way to represent the deified Fire – Zjarri, evidently also called with the theonym Enji. [6]

In Albanian tradition the fire cult and ritual practices have played a prominent role. [7] Enji (Albanian: [ɛɲi] ) is the name of the fire god, evidently contained in the week day name that was dedicated to him – e enjte – the Albanian word for Thursday. [8] The Fire – Zjarri – is deified in Albanian tradition as releaser of light and heat with the power to ward off darkness and evil, affect cosmic phenomena and give strength to the Sun (Dielli, who is worshiped as the god of light, sky and weather, giver of life, health and energy, and all-seeing eye), sustain the continuity between life and afterlife and between the generations. The divine power of Fire is used for the hearth and the rituals, including calendar fires, sacrificial offerings, divination, purification, and protection from big storms and other potentially harmful events. [9] Fire worship and rituals are associated with the cult of the Sun (Dielli), the cult of the hearth (vatër) and the ancestor, and the cult of fertility in agriculture and animal husbandry. [10] The practices associated with ritual fires among Albanians have been historically fought by the Christian clergy, without success. [11] The fire god Enji was presumably worshiped by the Illyrians in antiquity [12] and he may have been the most prominent god of the Albanian pantheon in Roman times by interpreting Jupiter, when week-day names were formed in the Albanian language. [13] The belief in a prominent fire and wind god, who was referred to as I Verbti ("the blind one"), and who was often regarded more powerful than the Christian God, survived in northern Albania until recent times. [14] Under Christianization the god of fire was demonized and considered a false god, and it was spread about that anyone who invoked him would be blinded by fire. [15] The purifying power of fire underlies the Albanian folk belief according to which the fire god is the enemy of uncleanliness and the opponent of filth. [16]

Albanian warrior dance in circle around fire (zjarri), drawing from the book Childe Harold's Pilgrimage written by Lord Byron in the early 19th century. Practiced for several hours with very short intervals, the dance gets new vigour from the words of the accompanying song that starts with a battle cry invoking war drums, and which is of a piece with the movement and usually changed only once or twice during the whole performance. The ritual purifying fire is traditionally used by Albanians, in particular singing and dancing around it, to gain protection and energizing from its supernatural power. Childe Harold's pilgrimage - a romaunt (1869) (14756251426).jpg
Albanian warrior dance in circle around fire (zjarri), drawing from the book Childe Harold's Pilgrimage written by Lord Byron in the early 19th century. Practiced for several hours with very short intervals, the dance gets new vigour from the words of the accompanying song that starts with a battle cry invoking war drums, and which is of a piece with the movement and usually changed only once or twice during the whole performance. The ritual purifying fire is traditionally used by Albanians, in particular singing and dancing around it, to gain protection and energizing from its supernatural power.

In Albanian tradition Fire is deeply respected. To spit into it is taboo. [19] Albanian solemn oaths are taken "by fire", [20] and the worst curse formulas are cast for the extinguishing of the individual's, family's and clan's fire. [21] The lineage is identified with an original fire, and the members of a same tribe/clan are "from the same fire". Zjarri i Vatrës ("the Fire of the Hearth") is regarded as the offspring of the Sun and the sustainer of the continuity between the world of the living and that of the dead and between the generations, ensuring the survival of the lineage (fis or farë). [22] The absence of fire in a house is traditionally considered a great curse. [21] Protectors of the hearth are Gjarpri i Vatrës ("the Serpent of the Hearth"), a household benign serpent, [23] and Nëna e Vatrës ("the Mother of the Hearth"). [24] [25] Zjarret e Vitit ("Ritual Calendar Fires") are associated with the cosmic cycle and the rhythms of agricultural and pastoral life. [26] The ritual collective fires (based on the house, kinship, or neighborhood) or bonfires in yards (especially on high places) lit before sunrise to celebrate the main traditional Albanian festivities such as Dita e Verës (spring equinox), Shëngjergji , the winter festivals (winter solstice), or mountain pilgrimages, often accompanied by animal sacrifices, are related to the cult of the Sun, and in particular they are practiced with the function to give strength to the Sun and to ward off evil according to the old beliefs. [27] Zjarri i Gjallë, Zjarri i Egër, or Zjarri i Keq – traditionally kindled with rudimentary fire making tools and techniques – is the ritual purifying Fire used for the cleansing, protection, healing, and energizing of livestock and humans. [28] Albanian folk beliefs regard the lightning as Zjarri i Qiellit ("the Fire of the Sky") and consider it as the "weapon of the deity". [29] During big storms with torrential rains, lightning and hail, which often cause great damage to agriculture, livestock, and to the rural economy in general, Albanians traditionally bring outdoors Fire as a continuous chain or in a container, as well as ember and fire-related metallic objects, seeking assistance from the supernatural power of the Fire, in order to turn the storm away and to avert the harms it can cause to the community. [30]

Baltic

The Holy Fire is referred to as Ugnis szwenta in Lithuanian, and the 'Mother of Fire' is referred to as Uguns māte in Latvian. [31]

Fire is very often mentioned by chroniclers, when they were describing Lithuanian rituals. The Lithuanian king Algirdas was even addressed as a "fire worshiper King of Lithuania" (τῷ πυρσολάτρῃ ῥηγὶ τῶν Λιτβῶν) in the documents of a patriarch Nilus of Constantinople. [32]

Celtic

Celtic mythology had Belenus, whose name, "shining one", associated him with fire.[ citation needed ]

Graeco-Roman

Fire worship in Graeco-Roman tradition had two separate forms: fire of the hearth and fire of the forge. Hearth worship was maintained in Rome by the Vestal Virgins, who served the goddess Vesta, protector of the home, who had a sacred flame as the symbol of her presence in the city (cf. Sacred fire of Vesta). The Greek equivalent of the goddess was Hestia, whose worship took place more commonly within the household. The fire of the forge was associated with the Greek god Hephaestus and the Roman equivalent Vulcan. These two seem to have served both as craft-guild patrons and as protectors against accidental fires in cities. Also associated with fire is the titanic god Prometheus, who stole fire for humans from the gods. Most forms of worship in Graeco-Roman religion involved either cooking or burning completely an animal on a fire made on an altar in front of a temple (see hecatomb).[ citation needed ]

Hinduism

In the Vedic tradition of Hinduism, fire is a central element in a yajna ceremony, with Agni, "fire", playing the role as mediator between the worshipper and the other gods. Related concepts are the Agnihotra ritual, the invocation of the healing properties of fire; the Agnicayana ritual, which is the building of a fire altar to Agni; and Agnistoma, which is one of the seven Somayajnas. In the Vaishnava tradition of Hinduism, Agni is considered the tongue of Vishnu, hence rendering all sacrifices offered to any given deity ultimately a sacrifice to Vishnu. [33]

Hindu yajna fire ritual, 2013 Kalyandi durga mondir9.JPG
Hindu yajna fire ritual, 2013

In modern Hinduism, Yajna is the general terms for the many types of rituals conducted before a fire, with homa the term for relatively small fire pujas conducted in a domestic setting, or as part of a wedding ceremony (a vivaha homa). The fire is very carefully constructed and tended by a specialist Brahmin pujari , with much reciting of appropriate passages from sacred texts.

Indo-Iranian

Archaeologically, evidence for Indo-Iranian fire worship and the rite of cremation is found at the transition from the Sintashta-Petrovka to the Andronovo culture around 1500 BC. [34] Fire worship was prevalent in Vedic, with Agni the fire god, and the ancient Iranian religion. Whereas cremation became ubiquitous in Hinduism, it was prohibited in Zoroastrianism. [35] Evidence of fire worship has also been found at the Indus Valley sites of Kalibangan and Lothal. [36]

Zoroastrianism

In Zoroastrianism, fire is considered to be an agent of purity and as a symbol of righteousness and truth. In the present day this is explained to be because fire burns ever-upward and cannot itself be polluted. Sadeh and Chaharshanbe Suri are both fire-related festivals celebrated throughout Greater Iran and date back to when Zoroastrianism was still the predominant religion of the region. Zoroastrianism, however, is sometimes mischaracterised as a fire-worshipping religion, whereas it is a monotheistic faith with Ahura Mazda as its central figure and a dualistic cosmology of good and evil. Fire simply exemplifies a medium for spiritual wisdom and purity, but is not worshipped.

Slavic

In Slavic paganism, Svarog, meaning "bright and clear", was the spirit of fire. The best known and dramatic among numerous Slavic pagan fire rituals is the jumping over the bonfire on the Kupala Night.

Abrahamic religions

Judaism

In the narratives of the Hebrew Bible, Yahweh is associated with fire more than any other element or image, and the Presence of Yahweh is conceptualized as a devouring fire, especially but not exclusively in the Book of Exodus, appearing as fire on top of Mount Sinai, inside the Ark of the Covenant, as the Burning bush and the Pillar of fire that guides the Israelites, and in extensive poetic imagery. [37] Offerings to Yahweh in Jewish ritual recorded in the Hebrew Bible and the Talmud are done by fire. [38]

Christianity

The Holy Fire in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem has been consecutively documented since 1106 AD. [39]

Fire is often used as symbol or sign of God's presence in Christianity and, since it is held to be a creation along with water and other elements. In the New Testament, Jesus is depicted as the person who will bring fire to the earth. [40] The Holy Spirit is sometimes called the "tongues of flame". [41]

Other religions

Fire continues to be a part of many human religions and cultures. For example, it is used in cremation and bonfires; candles are used in various religious ceremonies; eternal flames are used to remind of notable occasions; and the Olympic Flame burns for the duration of the games.

In Japanese mythology, Kagu-tsuchi is the god of destructive fire.

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Solar deity</span> Sky deity who represents the Sun

A solar deity or sun deity is a deity who represents the Sun or an aspect thereof. Such deities are usually associated with power and strength. Solar deities and Sun worship can be found throughout most of recorded history in various forms. The Sun is sometimes referred to by its Latin name Sol or by its Greek name Helios. The English word sun derives from Proto-Germanic *sunnǭ.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Prende</span> Albanian dawn goddess, goddess love, beauty, fertility and health

Prende or Premte is the dawn goddess, goddess of love, beauty, fertility, health and protector of women, in the Albanian pagan mythology. She is also called Afër-dita, an Albanian phrase meaning "near day", "the day is near", or "dawn", in association with the cult of the planet Venus, the morning and evening star. She is referred to as Zoja Prenne or Zoja e Bukuris. Her sacred day is Friday, named in Albanian after her: e premte, premtja. She reflects features belonging to the original Indo-European dawn goddess. A remarkable reflection associated with the Indo-European dawn goddess is the Albanian tradition according to which Prende is the daughter of the sky god – Zojz.

Perëndi is an Albanian noun for God, deity, sky and heaven. It is used capitalized to refer to the Supreme Being, and uncapitalized for "deity", "sky" and "heaven".

Shurdh is a name for the weather and storm god in Albanian pagan mythology. In some regions of the Albanian Alps the weather and storm god has been referred to as Rmoria or Shen Verbti; the latter is an Albanian adjectival noun meaning "the blind one" that has been used in other northern Albanian regions, to refer to the fire and wind god. In Zadrima the sky and lightning god has been called Zojz, the clear equivalent and cognate of Messapic Zis and Ancient Greek Zeus. Another possible name of the sky and lightning god could be Perëndi. The Albanian divine culture hero drangue, who plays a dominant role in Albanian mythology, features the attributes of a sky and lightning deity, apparently an Albanian reflection of the Indo-European sky god.

I Verbti is an Albanian adjectival noun meaning "the blind one", which was used in northern Albanian folk beliefs to refer to the god of fire and wind in the Zadrima region, and to the thunderstorm god in Dukagjin and the Malësia e Vogël; in Shala the thunderstorm god was referred to as Rmoria. These beliefs survived in northern Albania until recent times.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kulshedra</span> Demon in Albanian mythology and folklore

The kulshedra or kuçedra is a water, storm, fire and chthonic demon in Albanian mythology and folklore, usually described as a huge multi-headed female serpentine dragon. She is the archetype of darkness and evil, the complementary and opposing force to drangue, the archetype of light and good. The kulshedra is believed to spit fire, cause drought, storms, flooding, earthquakes and other natural disasters against mankind.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Albanian paganism</span>

Albanian paganism comprises the pagan customs, beliefs, rituals, myths and legends of the Albanian people. The elements of Albanian mythology are of ancient Paleo-Balkanic origin and almost all of them are pagan. Ancient paganism persisted among Albanians, and especially within the inaccessible and deep interior – where Albanian folklore evolved over the centuries in a relatively isolated tribal culture and society – it has continued to persist, or at most it was partially transformed by the Christian, Muslim and Marxist beliefs that were either to be introduced by choice or imposed by force. The Albanian traditional customary law (Kanun) has held a sacred – although secular – longstanding, unwavering and unchallenged authority with a cross-religious effectiveness over the Albanians, which is attributed to an earlier pagan code common to all the Albanian tribes. Indeed, the Kanun contains several customary concepts that clearly have their origins in pagan beliefs, including in particular the ancestor worship, animism and totemism, which have been preserved since pre-Christian times. Albanian traditions have been orally transmitted – through memory systems that have survived intact into modern times – down the generations and are still very much alive in the mountainous regions of Albania, Kosovo and western North Macedonia, as well as among the Arbëreshë in Italy and the Arvanites in Greece, and the Arbanasi in Croatia.

Illyrian religion refers to the religious beliefs and practices of the Illyrian peoples, a group of tribes who spoke the Illyrian languages and inhabited part of the western Balkan Peninsula from at least the 8th century BC until the 7th century AD. The available written sources are very tenuous. They consist largely of personal and place names, and a few glosses from Classical sources.

Zana is a nymph-like figure in Albanian mythology and folklore, usually associated with mountains, springs and streams, forests, vegetation and animals, human vital energy and sometimes destiny. Zana e Madhe is thought to have been an Illyrian goddess, equivalent of the Ancient Greek Artemis and Roman Diana.

The drangùe is a semi-human winged divine hero in Albanian pagan mythology, associated with weather and storms. He is the archetype of light and good, the complementary and opposing force to kulshedra, the archetype of darkness and evil. Babies destined to become drangue are born with their heads covered in caul and with two or sometimes four wings under their arms. The drangue hold supernatural powers, especially in the wings and arms. A drangùe is made invulnerable by the singular conjunction produced at his birth, and can die only if this conjunction is repeated once again.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Enji (deity)</span> Albanian fire god and cult

Enji is the old name of the fire god in the Albanian pagan mythology evidently contained in the week day name that was dedicated to him – e enjte – the Albanian word for Thursday. The Fire – Zjarri – is deified in Albanian tradition as releaser of light and heat with the power to ward off darkness and evil, affect cosmic phenomena and give strength to the Sun, and as sustainer of the continuity between life and afterlife and between the generations. The divine power of Fire is used for the hearth and the rituals, including calendar fires, sacrificial offerings, divination, purification, and protection from big storms and other potentially harmful events. Fire worship and rituals are associated with the cult of the Sun (Dielli), the cult of the hearth (vatër) and the ancestor, and the cult of fertility in agriculture and animal husbandry. Fire rituals that are commonly found among Indo-European peoples, including the Albanians, have been firstly attested by the Vedas, with hymns dedicated to the fire god Agni. Described in written sources since 1482, the Albanian fire rituals have been historically fought by the Christian clergy, without success. The cult of the mystic fire and the fire ritual practices have played a prominent role in the lives of all the Albanian people until the 20th century, and in rural areas they continue to be important for Albanian traditional customs even in the present days.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Zojz (deity)</span> Albanian sky and lightning god

Zojz is a sky and lightning god in Albanian pagan mythology. Regarded as the chief god and the highest of all gods, traces of his worship survived in northern Albania until the early 20th century, and in some forms still continue today. The old beliefs in the Sky are pagan beliefs preserved by Albanians since ancient times. In Albanian the god who rules the sky is referred to as i Bukuri i Qiellit, a phrase that is used in pagan contexts for the Sun (Dielli), worshiped as the god of light, sky and weather, giver of life, health and energy, and all-seeing eye. The sacred significance of one of the main symbols of the sky cult – the eagle – has been scrupulously preserved by Albanians, who have always considered it their animal totem. An epithet considered to be associated with the sky-god is "father", thought to be contained in the Albanian noun Zot, used to refer to the supreme entity. A remarkable reflection of Proto-Indo-European mythology associated with the dawn goddess *H₂éwsōs is the Albanian tradition according to which the dawn goddess – Prende – is the daughter of the sky god – Zojz.

Nëna e Vatrës or Nana e Votrës is an Albanian mythological figure, the protector of the hearth, associated with the household fire worship, the cult of the ancestor and family life. She is sometimes regarded as a goddess in Albanian traditions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vitore</span> Albanian domestic deity

The Vitore is a household divine serpent in Albanian mythology and folklore, associated with human destiny, good fortune and the souls of the ancestors. In folk beliefs the household serpent is strongly related to the cult of the hearth (vatër) and it is especially considered the guardian of the family and the house.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vatër</span>

The vatër is the domestic hearth in Albanian culture. The fire of the domestic hearth holds divine attributes in Albanian beliefs, being considered the sustainer of the continuity between the world of the living and that of the dead, and ensuring the continuity of the tribe from generation to generation. The absence of fire in a house is traditionally considered a great curse. In Albanian folk beliefs the fire hearth is the symbol of fire as the offspring of the Sun (Dielli). In Albanian tradition the deified fire (zjarri) was evidently also called with the theonym Enji, the god to whom Thursday – e enjte – was dedicated in the Albanian language.

*Seh₂ul and *Meh₁not are the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European Sun deity and Moon deity respectively. *Seh₂ul is reconstructed based on the solar deities of the attested Indo-European mythologies, although its gender is disputed, since there are deities of both genders. Likewise, *Meh₁not- is reconstructed based on the lunar deities of the daughter languages, but they differ in regards to their gender.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dheu</span> The Earth in Albanian paganism

Dheu, the Earth, is the object of a special cult, important oaths, and curse formulas in Albanian paganism.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dielli (Albanian paganism)</span> The Sun in Albanian paganism

Dielli, the Sun, holds the primary role in Albanian pagan customs, beliefs, rituals, myths, and legends. Albanian major traditional festivities and calendar rites are based on the Sun, worshiped as the god of light, sky and weather, giver of life, health and energy, and all-seeing eye. In Albanian tradition the fire – zjarri, evidently also called with the theonym Enji – worship and rituals are particularly related to the cult of the Sun. Ritual calendar fires or bonfires are traditionally kindled before sunrise in order to give strength to the Sun and to ward off evil. Many rituals are practiced before and during sunrise, honoring this moment of the day as it is believed to give energy and health to the body. As the wide set of cultic traditions dedicated to him indicates, the Albanian Sun-god appears to be an expression of the Proto-Indo-European Sky-god.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Albanian traditional tattooing</span>

Tattooing among Albanians is a long-standing tradition that has been practiced since Illyrian times, kept alive in the mountainous areas of the western Balkans. Traditional tattooing has also been practiced by Catholics in Bosnia and Herzegovina and Dalmatia (Sicanje), and by women of some Vlach communities.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hëna (Albanian paganism)</span> The Moon in Albanian paganism

Hëna, the Moon, holds a prominent position in Albanian pagan customs, beliefs, rituals, myths, and legends. In Albanian traditions the Moon's cyclical phases have regulated many aspects of life, defining agricultural and livestock activities, various crafts, and human body.

References

  1. Tagliavini 1963 , p. 103; Treimer 1971 , p. 32; Orel 1998 , p. 88
  2. "Fire". etymonline.com.
  3. Mallory, J. P.; Adams, D. Q., (eds.). Encyclopedia of Indo-European culture. London, Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers, 1997. p. 202.
  4. Mallory, J. P.; Adams, D. Q., (eds.). Encyclopedia of Indo-European culture. London, Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers, 1997. p. 636.
  5. Tirta 2004, pp. 250–251.
  6. Treimer 1971, p. 32; Murray-Aynsley 1891, pp. 29, 31.
  7. Tirta 2004 , pp. 68–69, 135, 176–181, 249–261, 274–282, 327; Qafleshi 2011 , p. 49.
  8. Tagliavini 1963 , p. 103; Treimer 1971 , p. 32; Orel 1998 , p. 88; Lurker 2005 , p. 57; Koch 2015 , p. 113; Sarao 2021 , p. 13
  9. Tirta 2004 , pp. 68–69, 135, 176–181, 249–261, 274–282, 327, 410; Useini 2024 , p. 164; Pipa 1993 , p. 253; Poghirc 1987 , pp. 178–179; De Rapper 2012 , pp. 14–15; Gjoni 2012 , p. 90; Galaty et al. 2013 , p. 161.
  10. Tirta 2004 , pp. 68–69, 135, 176–181, 249–261, 274–282, 327; Qafleshi 2011 , p. 49; Poghirc 1987 , pp. 178–179; Hysi 2006 , pp. 349–361.
  11. Qafleshi 2011, p. 49.
  12. Treimer 1971 , p. 32; Lambertz 1973 , p. 476; Poghirc 1987 , p. 178; Lurker 2005 , p. 57.
  13. Treimer 1971 , p. 32; Lambertz 1973 , p. 476; Poghirc 1987 , p. 178; Orel 1998 , p. 88; Koch 2015 , p. 113.
  14. Lambertz 1922 , pp. 47, 49, 145–146; Stadtmüller 1954 , pp. 216–217; Lambertz 1973 , pp. 505–506.
  15. Lurker 2004 , p. 197; Stadtmüller 1954 , pp. 216–217; Lambertz 1922 , pp. 47, 49, 145–146.
  16. Lambertz 1922, pp. 47, 49, 145–146.
  17. Steiner-Karafili 2010, pp. 143–144.
  18. Tirta 2004 , pp. 279–281, 327; Useini 2024 , p. 164.
  19. Pipa 1993, p. 253.
  20. Hysi 2006, pp. 349–361.
  21. 1 2 Muka 1984, p. 29.
  22. Poghirc 1987 , p. 179; Tirta 2004 , pp. 176, 410; De Rapper 2012 , pp. 14–15; Gjoni 2012 , p. 90; Galaty et al. 2013 , p. 161.
  23. Tirta 2004 , pp. 152–156; Elsie 2001 , p. 260; Doja 2005 , pp. 449–462; Poghirc 1987 , p. 179; Doli 2009 , pp. 127–128; Stipčević 2009 , p. 507.
  24. Tirta 2004, pp. 176–181.
  25. Poghirc 1987, p. 179.
  26. Poghirc 1987 , p. 179; Tirta 2004 , pp. 68–69, 135, 176–181, 249–261, 274–282, 327.
  27. Tirta 2004 , pp. 75, 113, 116, 250; Useini 2024 , p. 164.
  28. Tirta 2004, pp. 279–281.
  29. Tirta 2004, pp. 82, 406.
  30. Tirta 2004 , pp. 82, 309; Brahaj 2007 , pp. 16–18.
  31. West 2007, p. 269.
  32. Norkus 2017, p. 1966.
  33. Madhulika Sharma (2002). Fire Worship in Ancient India. Jaipur Publication Scheme. ISBN   978-81-86782-57-6.
  34. Diakonoff, Igor M. (1995). "Two Recent Studies of Indo-Iranian Origins" (PDF). Journal of the American Oriental Society. 115 (3): 473–477. doi:10.2307/606224. ISSN   0003-0279. JSTOR   606224 . Retrieved 9 January 2022.
  35. Kreyenbroek, Philip G. (11 January 2013). Living Zoroastrianism: Urban Parsis Speak about their Religion. Routledge. ISBN   978-1-136-11970-5 . Retrieved 9 January 2022.
  36. Young, L. M. (1976). [Review of Lothal and the Indus Civilization, by S. R. Rao & M. Wheeler]. Asian Perspectives, 19(2), 308–309. http://www.jstor.org/stable/42927928
  37. "Sefaria: Exodus 13:21 - JPS Tanakh 1985". Sefaria. Retrieved 1 July 2024.
  38. "Sefaria: Leviticus 1:1 - JPS Tanakh 1985". Sefaria. Retrieved 1 July 2024.
  39. "Holy Fire. Holy Fire in Jerusalem is yearly miracle in Church of Holy Sepulchre".
  40. "Bible Gateway passage: Luke 12:49-56 - New International Version". Bible Gateway. Retrieved 8 November 2021.
  41. "Bible Gateway passage: Matthew 3:11 - New International Version". Bible Gateway. Retrieved 8 November 2021.

Bibliography